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MEISTT^RY 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR.! 




NEW YO; 
OAKLEY AN 13 MASON. 

No. 21 MURRAY STREET. 



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UNITED STATES UF AMERICA. J 



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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



BY SIMON KERL, A.M. 



SEVENTEENTH EDITION. 



NEW YORK: 
OAKLEY AND MASON, 

No. 21, MURRAY STREET. 
1 864. 



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i 



K E R L ' S -^ 
SEKIES OF ENGLISH GEAMMARS. 



Kerl's Elementary English Grammar.— In the rapidity of 
its sales, this little treatise, according to its age, has surpassed every similar 
book ever published in this country. It contains, in a very compact and sys- 
tematic form, about as much grammar as the majority of children have time to 
learn in our common public schools. It is, at the same time, so nearly identical 
with the first part of the large Grammar, as to enable the pupil to begin that 
book at Part Second, or even on p. 122. 

Pages, 164 ; well printed and bound. Price 40 cents. 

Kerl's Comprehensive English Grammar. — This I ook 
is designed to be a thorough Practical Grammar, for the use of Common Schools. 
Nearly all that it contains beyond what the generality of grammars have, will 
be new and useful To its sections on Vebbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, 
Parsing, Analysis, Versification, Punctuation, Capital Letters, Rhe- 
torical Figures, and False Syntax, particular attention is directed ; and also 
to the arrangement of matter, and to the copious Illustrations and Exercises 
375 pp., 12mo. Price 75 cents. 

Kerl's Treatise on the English Language. — This book 
is designed for the use of High-Schools, Colleges, and Private Students. It will 
embrace, so far as practicable, the History, Etymology, Grammar, and 
Structure of the Language, with copious Illustrations and Critical Re- 
marks, an Essay on Composition, an Essay on Delivery, and a Collection 
of Synonyms. Large 8vo. (In Preparation.) 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, 

By Simon Keel, 

In the Cierk's Office of the District Court for the District of Columbia. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S64, 

By SIMON KEEL, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 

Electrotyped by Smith & McDougal, 82 & 84 Beekman-street 



*, 



PREFACE. 

This little book is designed for beginners, for Public Schools, and as an intro- 
duction to the Comprehensive Grammar. 

It is the result of much labor and care, and of considerable experience in 
teaching. In proportion to its size, it contains more grammar, with all the neces- 
sary illustrations and exercises, than any similar book with which the author is 
acquainted. It affords the pupil ample facilities for mastering all the parts of speech, 
for analyzing plain sentences, and for correcting the common errors of language. 

The arrangement of matter is unusually simple, progressive, and logical. Ac- 
cording to the present system of teaching the English language, the main object 
of an English grammar should be, to show the construction of the language, and 
to correct the popular errors, which, from ignorance or carelessness, naturally 
grow out of this construction. Hence I have first presented the etymological 
properties, attended below by a set of exercises running parallel with the text ; 
then the syntactical properties, with exercises; then the etymological and syn- 
tactical properties combined, first, in the whole circuit of right construction, called 
Parsing, and, secondly, in the whole circuit of misconstruction, called False Syn- 
tax ; then the construction of language on that grander scale which is called 
Analysis ; and, lastly, under the head of Prosody, whatever is needed, as finish 
and ornament, to complete the subject. 

I have endeavored to make the study of grammar as interesting and practical 
as it can possibly be made ; to simplify and abridge definitions and classifica- 
tions ; to simplify Parsing and Analysis, by removing all superfluous machinery, 
and making them more of a self-evident and common-sense affair ; to follow 
everywhere the natural order of things, except where the pupil's limited ability 
requires variation ; and to introduce difficult subjects by familiar and striking 
explanations, without requiring the pupil to learn a series of questions and 
answers from which he can but guess the principles. 

The catechetic system has been adopted to some extent, because it seems to be 
the best for beginners ; but care has been taken not to abuse it. The arrange- 
ment of question, answer, and illustrations, is simple and direct. The labor of the 
pupil, too, can be thus often lightened, by throwing the less important matter 
into the question, and burdening his miud with not more than the chief idea. 
Where definitions seem rather long, it will generally be found that they are 
enumerative, or consist of contrasted parts, and are therefore more easily learned. 

We should show to children not merely the essence in an apothecary's bottle, 
but take them to the bush on which the roses grow. The examples to illustrate 
the text are therefore numerous and prominent, and the parts referred to are made 
obvious by means of Italics and small capitals. This mode of presenting the sub- 
ject is not unlike the approved method of teaching by " object lessons." 

Since difficult words could not always be well avoided, most of them have 
been explained on the lower margins of the pages. To understand fully what 
we are to learn, is the first great requisite in studying ; pupils can not, therefore, 
acquire too soon the habit of referring to a good dictionary for the meaning of 
every word which they do not understand. 

Sometimes words are explained a little before the page to which they belong, 
and sometimes the exercises are a little beyond the page to which thej belong; 
but all the related parts have been arranged as nearly together as typography 
would allow. 

This little book is made so nearly identical with Part First of the Comprehen- 
sive Grammar, that, when the pupil has learned the Elementary Grammar, he 
may begin the Comprehensive at Part Second, and use Part First as a review of 
the smaller treatise. 



SYNOPSIS. 

1. Introductory View, or an Outline. — Letters, syllables, 
words, subjects, predicates, phrases, propositions, clauses, sen- 
tences. 

2. Nouns and Pronouns. — Classes : nouns, proper and 
common ; 2 :)ronouns "> — personal, relative, and interrogative. 
Properties : genders, — masculine, feminine, common, and neuter; 
persons, — first, second, and third; numbers, — singular and plu- 
ral; cases, — nominative, possessive, and objective. Declension. 
Exercises. 

3. Articles. — Kinds ; definite and indefinite. How a and 
an should be used. Exercises. 

4. Adjectives. — Classes : descriptive, and definitive with 
sub-classes. Degrees of comparison; positive, comparative, 
and superlative. List of adjectives that are not regularly com- 
pared. Exercises. 

5. Terbs. — Classes: verbs finite, participles, and infinitives ; 
regular verbs, irregular verbs, list of irregular verbs ; transitive 
and intransitive. Properties : voices, — active and passive ; 
moods, — indicative, subjunctive, potential, imperative, infinitive ; 
tenses, — present, past, future, perfect, pluperfect, future-perfect, 
with forms — common, emphatic, progressive, and passive; 
persons and numbers. Participles and infinitives. Auxiliary 
verbs. Formation of the tenses. Conjugation. Exercises. 

6. Adverbs. — Their chief characteristics. Large list, care- 
fully classified. Exercises. 

7. Prepositions. — Their chief characteristics. Adjuncts. 
List of prepositions. Exercises. 

8. Conjunctions. — Classes ; coordinate, subordinate, cor- 
responding. List of conjunctions, classified according to their 
meanings. Exercises. 

9. Interjections. — List, classified according to the emotions. 

10. Rules of Syntax. — The relations of words to one an- 
other, in the structure of sentences. Exercises under each Jtule. 

11. Parsing. — Formulas, models, and examples. 

12. False Syntax. — Examples to be corrected, under the 
Rules and other principles of grammar. 

13. Analysis of Sentences. — Principles, with exercises. 
Formulas. Sentences analyzed. Thought and its expression. 
The six elements. Exercises. Gray's Elegy. 

14. Prosody. — Punctuation, figures, and versification. 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



1. INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 

What is language ? 

Language is the medium by which we express 
our thoughts. 

Of what does language consist ? 

Of a great variety of sounds, which are used as the 
signs of our ideas, and are called words. 

To what may all these sounds be reduced ? 

To a small number of simple sounds, which are 
made intelligible to the eye, as well as to the ear, by 
means of certain marks called letters. 

Language thus becomes both spoken and written. 
What is a letter ? 

A letter is a character that denotes one or more 
of the elementary sounds of language. 

Examples : A, b, c ; age, at, art, all ; bubble ; cent, cart. 
|Jj§r* Always read the examples carefully, reflecting upon each, so that you 
may learn clearly and fully what is meant by the definition. 

Grammar is the science which teaches us to speak and write 
correctly. £ugli§li Grammar teaches how to speak and write 
the English language correctly. 

Grammar may be divided into five parts ; Pronuncia' Hon, Orthog'- 

raphy, Etymology, Syn'tax, and Pros' ody. (Spelling, pronunciation, 

and derivation, should be learned chiefly from spelling-books.) 

IFordI S Explained-. — Grammar is derived from the Greek word gramma, 
a letter, and thence writing ; because the need of a knowledge of language is greatest, 
or most felt, when we undertake to write it, and hence language became an object 
of study chiefly with a view to writing it. A scl'ence is a branch of knowledge put 
together in some proper order. M-e-ment'-a-ry, simple, what we. begin with ; con- 
taining what is most important. Introductory, leading in. Lan'guage, from the 
Latin lingua,, tongue ; because the tongue is the chief organ of speech. Me'-di-um ; 
that through which a thing passes, or by which it is conveyed. Ide'a; the picture 
or notion of a thing, in the mind. Intel' ligible, such that it can be understood. 
Ghar'acter, a mark or sign. Exam'ple, what shows or proves, a pattern. Re- 
Jlecting, thinking back upon. Definition ; a short description of a thing, to dis- 
tinguish it from different things, by telling what it is. 



J INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 

How many elementary sounds has our language, and how many letters to 
represent them ? 

About forty elementary sounds, and twenty -six let- 
ters to represent them. 

Into what two classes are the letters divided ? 

Into vowels and consonants. 

"What is a vowel ? and what is a consonant f 

A vowel is a letter that denotes pure sound only ; 
a consonant is a letter that generally denotes a contact 
of some of the organs of speech. 

"Which are the vowels ? 

A, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

Wor y is a consonant, only when it is followed by a vowel sound in the same 
syllable ; as in water, young, away, Bunyan. 
What is a syllable ? 

A syllable is a letter, or two or more combined, 
pronounced as one unbroken sound. 

Ex. — A, I, on, no, not, stretched, barb'dst, a-e-ri-al, pro-fu-sion. 
What is a word ? 

A word is a syllable, or two or more combined, 
used as the sign of some idea. 

Ex. — Man, tree, sky, pink, beauty, strikes, well, fair, alas, because. 
How are words classified according to their syllables ? 

Into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and 
polysyllables. 

Exercises. 

Tell which of the following letters are vowels, and which are consonants : — 
A, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z ; 
bar, bed, kind, fond, turn, Baltimore. 



Class ; 

so-nant, 

with a vowel. Organs of speech; the glottis, palate, tongue, teeth, and lips. 

Combined', put together. Con'tact, a touching, junction CMsiJitd, put into 

classes. Monos, alone, one ; dis, double ; tri, three ; polys, many. 

Pronunciation treats of sounds ; Orthography, of letters ; Ety- 
mology, of words; Syntax, of sentences; and Prosody, of the finish 
and ornaments of sentences. 



INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 3 

Define these classes. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable; a dis- 
syllable, of two ; a trisyllable, of three ; and a poly- 
syllable, of four or more. 

Ex. — I, song ; baker ; ornament ; customary, incomprehensibility. 
How are words classified according to their formation ? 

Into primitive, derivative, and compound. 

Define these classes. 

A primitive word is not formed from another word ; 
a derivative word is formed from another word ; and a 
compound word is composed of two or more other words. 

Ex. — Primitive: Breeze, build. Derivative: Breezy, builder, re- 
build. Compound: Sea-breeze, newspaper. 

How are words divided according to their meaning? 

Into nine classes, called Parts of Speech. 

Name them. 

Nouns, Pronouns, Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Ad- 
verbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

Familiar Explanation. — I might present to your mind, by words alone, all 
that I have ever seen or experienced. To do this, I should have to use nouns and 
pronouns, to denote objects ; articles, to aid the nouns ; adjectives, to express the 



Exercises. 

Tell which are monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, polysyllables, and why : — ■ 

Pink, lily, daffodil, ordinary, gold, silver, golden, silvery, book, 
grammar, grammatical, grammatically, arithmetic, behavior, punish- 
ment, home, mother, relative, relatives, unassisted. 

Whether primitive, derivative, or compound, and why : — 

Play, playing, play-day, snow, snowy, ball, balls, snowball, snow- 
balls, noble, nobly, noble-minded, plant, transplant, planter, planta- 
tion, tea-plant, water-melon, he, hero, heroic, nothing, nevertheless. 

Words Explained*— Prim'-i-tive, first, simple. Be-riv'-a-tive, drawn 
from. Com'pound, made up of others. Denote', to stand as the sign of. Ob'ject, 
any thing that can be thought of as being something. Express', make known. 
Exercise, a drilling to give us a better or practical knowledge of something. 

Pronunciation treats of the sounds of letters and syllables, and 
of accent. The word is derived from the Latin words pro, forth, and 
nuncius, a messenger ; uttering forth aloud. 

Orthography treats of the forms of letters, and of spelling. From 
the Greek orthos, correct, and graphe, writing ; correct writing or 
spelling. 



4 INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 

qualities, conditions, or circumstances of objects ; verbs, to express their actions, 
or states of existence ; adverbs, to describe their actions, or to show the nature 
or degree of their qualities ; prepositions, to express their positions or relations to 
one another ; conjunctions, to continue the discourse, or to connect its parts ; and 
interjections, to give vent to any feeling or emotion springing up suddenly 
within me. 

Ex. — No uns : In spring, the sun shines pleasantly upon the earth, leaves 
and flowers come forth, and birds sing in the woods. 

Pronouns: Roses encircle my window, and th ^™ SeS ^°™ the ™£>"' 

Articles : The church stands on a hill. 

Adj ectiv es : Ripe strawberries are good. That man owns two farms. 

Verbs : Rivers flow, stars shine, men work, and boys study and play. 

Adverbs : Below us, a most beautiful river flowed very smoothly. 

Prepositions : There are cedars on the hill beyond the river. 

Conjunctions : John and James are happy, because they are good. 

Interjection : All seek for happiness; but, alas ! bow few obtain it. 
Suggestion to the Teacher. — Take a walk with your class, during some leis- 
mre interval, and teach them the parts of speech, from the surrounding scenery. 



Of what, at least, must every thought or saying consist ? 

Of a Subject and a Predicate. 

What is meant by the subject ? 

The subject denotes that of which something is 
affirmed. 

Ex. — The cannons were fired. The leaves and flowers in the garden 
have been killed by the frost. 

What is meant by the predicate ? 

The predicate denotes what is affirmed. 

Ex. — The cannons were fired. The leaves and flowers in the garden 
have been killed by the frost. 

Exercises. 

Tell which is the subject, and which is the predicate, and why : — 
Birds sing. Flowers bloom. Cats catch mice. The dew re- 
freshes the flowers. The stars gem the sky. The Indians' tents 
JW*ords Explained.— Subject^ from subjectus, thrown under, because 
viewed as being the foundation on which the proposition or sentence is based. 
Pred'kate, from prcedico, I speak or say. To affirm, in grammar, means to assert 
positively or negatively, to ask, or to command. 

Etymology treats of the true roots and meanings of words, and 
of the true or right forms of words to be put into sentences accord- 
ing to Syntax. From the Greek etytnos, true, and logos, a word or 
discourse ; the right words or forms. 



INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 5 

How are subjects and predicates classified ? 

Into simple and compound. 

Define simple subjects and compound subjects. 

A simple subject has but one nominative to which 
the predicate refers; a compound subject has more 
than one. 

Ex. — Simple : " Tlie boy learns;" " Tlie boy who is studious, learns." 
Compound : " Tlie boy and Ms sister learn j" " The boys and girls who 
are studious, learn." 

Define simple predicates and compound predicates. 

A simple predicate has but one finite verb referring 
to the subject ; a compound predicate has more than 
one. 

Ex, — Simple: "Boys study f "Boys study the lessons which 

are given to them." Compound : "Boys study, recite, and play;" 

" Boys study and recite the lessons which are given to them. 71 

What is a phrase ? 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put to- 
gether, but not making a proposition. 

Ex. — In the next place. Riding on horseback. To gather roses while 
they bloom. 

Exercises. 

stood along the river. John caught a fish. The fish was caught 
by John. William studies his lesson. A guilty conscience needs 
no accuser. The grass is growing. The bird has been singing. 
In a few years, these tribes will have disappeared. 

The subject and the predicate, and why ; whether simple or compound, and why : — 
The stars twinkle. The sun and moon shine. The sun rises 
and sets. Emma was gathering roses. Trees and flowers grow, 
flourish, and decay. The troubled ocean roars. Honeysuckles 
and roses overspread our portico. Laura brought a fresh rose, and 
gave it to me. A dark cloud hides the sun. The sun is hidden 
by a dark cloud. You and he may go and recite. The soldiers 7 
horses were in the pasture. The cannons w ? hich the soldiers brought, 
were captured in the battle. Do well, but boast not. (Supply thou.) 

Words Explained.— Norn' motive, naming, chief word in meaning. 
Refers, hangs to in sense. Fi'niU, not free, drawn to some particular thing ; ajinite 
verb has a particular form (called its person and number), which confines it to a par- 
ticular kind of subject. Phrase, from a Greek word that signifies to speak or say. 

Syntax treats of the relations and arrangement of words in the 
formation of sentences. From the Greek syn f together, and taxis, a 
placing ; placing together. 



6 INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 

What is a, proposition t 

A proposition is a subject combined with its 
predicate. 

Ex. — Stars shine. And if | ray hopes must perish. 

A proposition is an expression viewed as having a subject and a predicate ; a 
clause is a proposition viewed as making but a part of a sentence. 
What 13 a clause ? 

A clause is any one of two or more propositions 
which together make a sentence. 

Ex. — The morning was pure and sunny, the fields were white with daisies, 
the hawthorn was covered with its fragrant blossoms, the bee hummed about 
every bank, and the swallow played high in air about the village steeple. — Irving. 
This sentence has five clauses, separated by the comma. 

What is a sentence f 

A sentence is a thought expressed by words, and 
comprised between two full pauses. 

Ex. — Every man is the architect of his own fortune. Is life so dear, or 
peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? 

A sentence is simple, when it consists of but one simple proposition ; it is 
compound or complex, when it can be resolved into two or more propositions. 



Exercises. 

Whether a phrase or a sentence, and why : — 

Far away. The dark storm approaches. John's slate. Many- 
small pieces. John's slate is broken into many small pieces. The 
rising sun. The sun is rising. A large red apple. Give me a 
large red apple. To write a letter. I wish to write a letter. 

Whether a simple sentence or a compound, and why ; and if compound, mention 
the clauses : — 

Hope gilds the future. True praise takes root and spreads. The 
rain is pouring down heavily, and the river is rapidly rising. The 
sun illuminates the distant hills. Billows are murmuring on the 
hollow shore. Gold can not purchase life, nor can diamonds bring 
back the moments we have lost. God has robed the world with 
beauty. From flower and shrub arose a sweet perfume. Prosper- 
ity produces wealth ; and wealth, corruption. 

Words Explained,— Proposition, from the Latin pro, before, andpositio, 
placing ; something placed before a person's mind to be thought upon. Clause. 
something that fills up or doses the sense. Sentence is derived from the Latin word 
senten'tia, a thought or an opinion. Com'plex, knit together, tangled; con- 
sisting of parts closely connected. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, figures, and versification. From 
the Greek pros, to, and ode, tone added ; and thence, whatever is 
added to unadorned language to make it clearer or more expressive. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 7 

2. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

"What is a noun ? 

A noisn is a name. 

Ex. — God, Mary, man, George Washington, sky, sun, city, St. Louis, street, 
flower, soul, feeling, sense, motion, behavior. 

Names are given to persons or other spiritual beings, to brute animals, and 
to things. The word objects may be used as a general term for all these classes. 

There are two kinds of nouns ; proper and common. 

What is & proper noun ? 

A proper noun is the name of a particular object, 
which distinguishes it from other objects of the same 
kind. 

Ex. — George, Susan, William Shakespeare, New York, Mississippi, Monday* 
January ; the Andrew Fulton ; the IntelUgencer ; the Azores. 
What is a common noun ? 

A common noun is a name that can be applied to 
every object of the same kind. 

Ex. — Boy, tree, house, city, river, horse, chair, ink, bird, blackbird. 
All the objects in the world may be divided into a limited number of classes; 
as, rivers, valleys, hills, cities, leaves, flowers. A few of these classes — namely, 



Exercises. 

The, nouns, and why : — 

A house of marble. There are lions and ostriches in Africa. 
John and Joseph drove the horses to the pasture. There are roses, 
pinks, lilies, and tulips in our garden. The groves were God's first 
temples. Love and kindness go together. Col. Thomas H. 
Beuton died in the year 1858. There was much Indian fighting in 
the settling of this country. I like apples. I like to skate. 
A home on the rolling deep. Learn the how and the why. You 
is a pronoun. "Why he did not go, is obvious. (What is obvious ?) 
I know that you are wrong. (I know what ?) 

The pear and quince lay squandered on the grass ; 

The mould was purple with unheeded showers 
Of bloomy plums ;— a wilderness it was 
Of fruits, and weeds, and flowers ! — Hood. 

Words Explained. — -Spiritual beings, such as God and angels. 
Brute, animals, all the animals of the earth except man. General term, a word 
that denotes different things. Prop'er noun, a name that belongs to a person or 
thing just as private property belongs to its owner. Common, belonging to every 
one, found everywhere. Applied, given to. Distinguish, to set off so that we 
may know from others. Limited, within reach or command. 



8 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

persons, places, months, days, ships, boats, horses, oxen, rivers, mountains, and 
some others — are of so much importance to us in our daily affairs, that we have 
an extra name for each object of the class ; as, Thomas, Smith, Chicago, Mis- 
souri. The names of the former kind are common nouns ; those of the latter, 
proper nouns. The common noun rather tells what the object is ; and the proper 
noun, who or which it is. A proper noun begins with a capital letter. 
What is a collective noun ? 

A collective noun is a common noun that always 
denotes, in the singular form, more than one object 
of the same kind. 

Ex. — Family, army, swarm, multitude, congregation, class. 
Sub'stantive is often used as a general term to denote either a noun or a pro- 
noun, or whatever is used in the sense of a noun. 



What is a pronoun? 

A pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a 
noun. 

Ex. — "William promised Mary that William would lend Mary William's 
grammar, that Mary might study the grammar," is expressed more agreeably by 
saying, " William promised Mary that he, would lend her his grammar, that she 
might study it." Pronouns enable us to avoid disagreeable repetitions of nouns. 

What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? 

The antecedent of a pronoun is the word or expres- 
sion which it represents. 

William, Mary, and grammar, above, are the antecedents of he, she, and it. 



Exercises. 

The nouns, and why ; whether proper or common, and why : — 
Girl, Susan, boy, George, country, day, Europe, Saturday, month, 
September, holiday, Christmas, bird, blackbird, parrot, Polly, river, 
Mississippi, mountains, Andes, island, Cuba, chain, Jane, Louis, 
Louisa, Louisiana, state, city, New York, year, 1860, soil, mind, hope, 
army ; Mrs. Amelia Welby ; the prophet Jonah ; Cape Lookout. 
Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, enabled 
Columbus, a Genoese, to discover America. The clamor of most 
politicians is but an effort to get the ins out and the outs in. 

fforcfs Explained.— Collec'tive, gathering together or into one. 8utf- 
stantive, from sub, under, and stans, standing; standing under, upholding Qual- 
ities : this word is applied to nouns and pronouns, because objects, denoted by 
them, have a sort of independent existence ; while qualities and actions are in a 
manner dependent on objects. Pro means for, or in sttad of; hence pronoun 
means for a noun. Antecedent, from ante, before, and cedent, going ; going 
before : the antecedent of a pronoun generally precedes it. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 9 

There are three chief classes of pronouns ; personal, 
relative, and interrog 'ative. 

What is a personal pronoun ? 

A personal pronoun is one of that class of pro- 
nouns which are used to distinguish the three gram- 
matical persons. 

Ex. — /told you he was not at home. We told him who you are. 
Persons, in grammar, are properties of words to distinguish the speaker, what 
is spoken to, and what is spoken of, from one another. 
Which are the chief or leading personal pronouns ? 

I, thou or you, he, she, and it. 

What is a relative pronoun ? 

A relative pronoun is one whose clause generally 
relates to and describes a preceding word, and is 
always a dependent part of the sentence. 

Ex. — "There is the man whom you saw;" "From the side of a mountain 
gushed forth a little rivulet, which lay, like a silver thread, across the meadow ; ,s 
"I do not know who took your hat;" "No one knows what ails the child." 
Observe that the Italic words with what follows each, can make sense only in 
connection with the other words, and hence the relative clauses are said to be 



Which are the chief or leading relative pronouns ? 

Who, which, what, that, and as. 

Eelative pronouns may be divided into common and responsive. " Who 
came?" "I do not know who came." (Responsive relative.) "I do not know 
the man who came." (Common relative.) Observe that the second sentence dif- 
fers, in meaning, from the third. Who came, of the second sentence, is the pro- 
ceding question made responsive; but since the clause is dependent, and not 
interrogative, its pronoun may be classed with relatives rather than with inter- 
rogatives. 

Exercises. 

Mention the pronouns and their antecedents ; also put nouns for the pronouns :— 
The tree has shed its leaves. Liberty has God on her side. 
Let every' man take care of himself. John, you, and I, must learn 
our lessons. John and James know their lessons. Neither John 
nor James knows his lesson. Henry, you must study. And there 
her brood the partridge led. 

JW*ords Explained*— ReV ative, referring. Dependent, hanging to 
something else for support — in grammar, for complete sense. Eespon'sive, an- 
swering. Grammatical, belonging to grammar, or right according to grammar. 



10 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

What is an interrogative pronoun ? 

An interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a 
question. 

Ex. — Who took my hat? Which is yours ? What ails the child ? 
Which are the chief or leading interrogative pronouns ? 

Who, which, and what. 

What other words are frequently used as pronouns ? 

One, ones, oneself, none; other, others; that, those; 
each other, one another. 

Ex. — " Take this horse, and leave the other one ;" i. e., other horse. " The 
course of life is short, that [the course] of glory eternal." " They deemed each 
other oracles of law." — Pope. 

What is a compound pronoun? 

A compound pronoun is a simple pronoun with 
self, selves, ever, so, or soever annexed to it ; or it is a 
pronoun consisting of two words. 

Ex. — My, myself; them, themselves; who, whoever; each other. 
What properties have nouns and pronouns ? 

lenders, persons, numbers, and eases. 

Just as every apple, for instance, must have size, color, flavor, etc. 



Exercises. 

Put nouns for the pronouns : — 

John knows his lesson. Mary has lost her bonnet. He met 
her. I saw him and you. He showed them the lesson, that they 
might learn it. The girl went with her father, and the boy went 
with his mother, and they were good children. Who knows who 
he is ? (What person * * * that man, etc.) Bad boys spoil good 
ones. Take what you like. 

The pronouns, and why ; what kind, and why : — 

He saw me. We love them. She deceived herself. Know 
thyself. When a dandy has squandered his estate, he is not apt to 
regain it. The lady who had been sick, received the peaches which 
were ripe. This is the same marble that you gave me, and it is the 
best one that I have. W T ho came ? Who is he ? Which is he ? 
What is he ? We bought only such mules as we needed. ( — those 
mules which — ) Love what is worthy of love. ( — the thing 
which — ) This apple is neither yours nor mine, but hers. ( — your 

W*ords Explained.— Interrogative, asking. Annexed', joined to the 
end. Def'-i-nite, particular, exact. Property, what belongs to a thing, or is a 
part of its nature. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 11 

a. The pupil should constantly bear in mind, that language is made to suit 
the world, and not the world to suit language. The properties of words arise 
generally from the nature or relations of objects. We can readily observe that 
the objects around us are either males, females, or neither ; and to enable us to 
be sufficiently definite in these respects, words have what grammarians call 
genders. "What, then, is gender f 

Gender is the meaning of a word in regard to sex. 
There are four genders ; the mas'culine, the fem'- 
inlne, the common, and the neuter, 

"What does the masculine gender denote ? 

The masculine gender denotes males. 

Ex. — Man, Charles, brother, horse, ox, drake, instructor, he, his, him. 
What does the feminine gender denote ? 

The feminine gender denotes females. 

Ex. — Woman, Susan, niece, cow, duck, instructress, she, her. 
What does the common gender denote ? 

The conmion gender denotes either males or fe- 
males, or both. 

Ex. — Parent, child, cousin, people, animal, I, we, thou, your, who. 

Sometimes the sex may be ascertained more definitely from some other word 
in the sentence, and then the words should be parsed accordingly ; as, " The 
child and his mother were in good health." Here child is masculine, as shown 
by his. 

Exercises. 

apple nor my apple, but her apple?) By others' faults, wise men 
correct their own. (By other men's faults, etc.) None are com- 
pletely happy. (JVo persons are, etc.) He loves no other land so 
much as that of his adoption. ( — as the land — ) Whatever 
comes from the heart, goes to the heart. Do you know who he is ? 
Teach me what truth is. 

The personal pronouns : /, my, mine, myself, me y we, our, ours, 
(ourself) ourselves, us ; — thou, thy, thine, thyself, thee ; you, ye, 
your, yours, yourself, yourselves y — he, his, him, himself ; she, her, 
hers, herself ; it, its, itself; they, their, theirs, them, and themselves. 

The relative pronouns : Who, whoever, tvhosoever ; whose, 
whosever, whosesoever ; ivhom, whomever, whomsoever ; which, which- 
ever, whichsoever ; what, whatever, ivhatsoever ; that ; and as. 

Whoso and tchatso are sometimes found as shortened forms of w7wsoever and whatsoever. 

W*ords Explained, — Grammarians, persons that make grammar their 
business, or understand it well. Gender is a property of words, but sex is a prop- 
erty of objects ; hence there can be but two sexes, yet there may be four genders. 
Common, as applied to gender, means applicable to either sex ; neuter, to neither 
sex. Applicable, may be given to. 



12 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

What does the neuter gender denote ? 

The neuter gender denotes neither males nor fe- 
males. 

Ex. — Book, rock, rose, wisdom, cloud, happiness, it, what, flocks. 
A collective noun that denotes a group of persons or other beings as one 
thing, is neuter ; as, " The army was checked in its desolating career.'' 
How is a word naturally neuter, sometimes regarded by personification ? 

As masculine, if the object is noted for size, power, 
or domineering qualities; as feminine, if the object is 
noted for beauty, amiability, productiveness, or sub- 
missive qualities. 

Ex. — Now War aloft his bloody standard bears. The sun seemed shorn of 
his beams. The ship, with her snowy sails and flaunting banner. 
In what three different ways do we commonly distinguish the sexes ? 

By the use of different words, by difference of end- 
ing, or by prefixing a distinguishing word. 

Ex. — Boy, girl; actor, actress; 7*e-bear, she-bear. 
What are the most common endings that denote females. 

Ess, ix, ine, and a. 

Ex. — Lion, lioness; administrator, administratrix; hero, heroine; Cornelius, 
Cornelia. 

Exercises. 

The gender, and why : — 

Brother, seamstress, Julius, Julia, parent, father, mother, son, 
daughter, child, duck, gander, robin, snow, book, mouse, he, him, 
hymn, she, hers, it, they, we, I, eye, you, it, its, himself, herself, 
themselves, nations, party, clergy, game, person, corpse, spirit, who, 
which, what ; lady's hand ; lady's-slipper. Hope enchanting smiled, 
and waved her golden hair. John is a noun, and she is a pronoun. 

Give the feminine to each masculine term, then the masculine to each feminine 
term : — 

Boy, girl ; brother, sister ; beau, belle ; bridegroom, bride ; 
buck, doe ; hart, roe ; stag, hind ; bull, cow; bullock or steer, heifer ; 
drake, duck; father, mother; friar or monk, nun • gander, goose ; 
gentleman, lady (formerly, gentlewoman) ; lord, lady ; landlord, 
landlady y horse, mare; husband, wife; king, queen; lad, kus; 
male, female; man, woman; master, mistress; master, miss; nephew, 

Words Explained,— Personification is a lively mode of speaking, in 
which objects that are not persons, are spoken of as if they were persons, or as 
males or females ; as, " All Switzerland is in the field j she will not fly, she can not 
yield." Domineering, ruling, tyrannical. Submissive, yielding, obedient. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 1? 

b. In speaking, we may refer either t'o ourselves, to something spoken to, or 
to something spoken of, and there are no other ways of speaking ; hence words 
have what grammarians call persons. "What, then, is person ? 

Persoia, in grammar, is that property of words 
which shows whether the speaker is meant, what is 
spoken to, or what is spoken of. 

There are three persons ; the first, the second, and 
the third. 

What does the first person denote ? 

The first person denotes the speaker. 

. Ex. — I Andrew Jackson, President of the United States. 1 Paul have writ- 
ten it. We, the people of these colonies. 
What does the second person denote ? 

The second person represents an object as spoken 
to. 

Ex. — Thomas, come to me. Gentlemen of the jury. Happiness ! our 
being's end and aim. Thou, thou, art the man. 

What does the third person denote ? 

The third person represents an object as spoken of. 

Ex. — The stars shone out brilliantly from their blue depths. He knew it 
was what she wanted him to buy. I am a friend to you. 



Exercises. 

niece ; ram or "buck, ewe ; sir, madam ; uncle, aunt y wizard, witch; 
youth, damsel or maiden ; bachelor, maid y Charles, Caroline. 

Abbot, abbess ; actor, actress y ar'biter, ar'bitress y bar'on, baren- 
ess ; benefac'tor, benefac' tress ; count or earl, countess ; duke, duch'- 
ess y emperor, empress ; enchant'er, enchant' ress ; gov'ernor, gov'- 
erness; heir, heiress; host, hostess ; hunter, huntress; instructor, 
instructress ; Jew, Jewess ; lion, lioness ; marquis, marchioness y 
negro, negress ; patron, patroness ; peer, peeress ; poet, poetess ; 
priest, priestess; prince, princess y prior, prior ess ; prophet, prophet- 
ess y protector, protectress; shep'herd, shepherdess ; sor'cerer, sor'- 
ceress y tiger, tigress; tutor, tutoress; vis'count, vis' countess ; 
^idowet, widow ; administrator, administra! trix ; executor, execu- 
trix ; testa'tor, testatrix ; he'ro, heroine ; Joseph, Jo' sephine ; don, 
donna ; sign'or, signo'ra ; sultan, sulta'na or sul'taness ; tzar, tzari'- 
na ; Augustus, Augusta. 

Words Explained,,— Person, from the Latin perso'na, a mask ; bor- 
rowed from stage-playing, in which dift'erent masks, or styles of dress, enabla the 
same person to represent different persons or characters. 



14 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

c. There are more than one of almost every kind of objects ; and in speak- 
ing we are continually referring either to one object or to more, of the different 
kinds with which we have to do ; hence words have what grammarians call 
numbers. "What, then, is number f 

IV limber, in grammar, is that property of words 
which shows whether one object is meant, or more 
than one. 

There are two numbers ; the singular and tkejrfural. 

What does the singular number denote ? 

The singular number denotes but one. 

Ex. — Desk, leaf, boy, Arthur, swarm, I, thou, yourself, he, she, itself. 
What does the plural number denote ? 

The plural number denotes more than one. 

Ex. — Desks, leaves, boys, swarms, we, our, ye, they, them, themselves. 
How is the plural number of nouns generally formed ? 

By adding s to the singular. 

Ex. — Glove, gloves ; chair, chairs ; chimney, chimneys ; nation, Tuitions. 



Exercises. 

He-goat, she-goat/ buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit/ cock-sparrow, hen- 
sparrow/ man-servant, maid-servant/ male descendants, female 
descendants • Mr. Reynolds, Mrs. Reynolds, Miss Reynolds, 
The person, and why : — ■ 

I, you, he, we, my, myself, us, thee, yourselves, mine, thine, thy- 
self, himself, themselves, it, she, hers, others; a drooping willow ; 
my dictionary ; your grammar. I am the captain, sir. We pas- 
sengers have poor fare. Then said I to him, " Well, my little 
friend, how fare the schoolboys ?" 

My mother ! when I learned that thou wast dead, 
Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed ? 
Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son, 
Wretch even then, life's journey just begun ? 
I heard the bell tolled on thy funeral day, 
I saw the hearse that bore thee slow away, 
And, turning from my nursery window, drew 
A long, long sigh, and wept a last adieu ! — Cowper. 
Change into the other persons : — 

John writes. The girls study. Henry, you may play. I 
William Ringbolt hold myself responsible. Shall Hannibal com- 
pare himself with this half-year captain ? 
The number, and why : — 

Book, books, rose, roses, partridge, partridges, geese, family, fam- 
ilies, scissors, ashes, letters, love, swarm, hay, honey, molasses, I, we, 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 15 

To what nouns must es be added, to make them plural ? 

To nouns ending with s, x, z, sli, or soft ch ; and 
also to nouns ending with % o, u, or y, preceded each 
by a consonant. 

Ex.— Glass, glasses; fox, foxes; to'paz, to'pazes; bush, bushes; church, 
churches ; al'kall, al'kalles ; negro, negroes ; gnu, gnues ; story, stories. ( Y ia 
changed to *. See page 153.) 

Proper nouns, foreign nouns, and unusual nouns, to prevent the liability of 
mistaking them, are changed as little as possible, and hence often assume s only; 
as, Leary, the Learys ; Peri, Peris ; canto, cantos ; " several tos" [or fo's]. 

Owing to their foreign tinge, we still find, in good use, cantos, duodecimos, frescos, grot- 
tos, halos, juntos, 'mementos, octavos, pianos, porticos, quartos, salvos, solos, tyros, zeros, in 
stead of cantoes from canto, grottoes from grotto, etc., -which are also coming into use. 

How is the plural of compound words generally expressed ? 

By making plural that part of the word which is 
described by the rest. 

Ex. — Mouse-trap, mouse-traps ; spoonful, spoonfuls; brother-in-law, brothers- 
in-law ; commander-in-chief, commanders-in-chief. 

"When the title Mr., Miss, or Dr., is used with a name, how is the whole term made plural ? 

By making plural the title only. 

Mr. Harper, Messrs. Harper ; Miss Brown, the Misses Broicn ; Dr. Lee, Drs. Lee. 

When the title is Mrs., or when the word two, three, etc., stands before the 
title, the latter noun is made plural. " The Mrs. Barlows." — Irving. " The 
two Miss Scotts had been gathering flowers." — Irving. 



Exercises. 

you, thou, him, themselves, they, his, several, one, ones, none, one 
another, our, ours, my, a, an, each man, either man, every man, 
neither road, two, a two, two twos, a twin, twins, a pair, two pair. 

Spell the plurals of the singulars, then the singulars of the plurals : — 

Man, men; woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen; foot, feet; 
goose, geese; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; louse, lice; cow, cows or 
Tcine ; this, these ; that, those; I, we ; thou, ye; he, they. 

Brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same so- 
ciety) ; die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (small cubes for gaming) ; 
fish,' fishes (individuals), fish (quantity, or the species); genius, ge- 
niuses (men of genius), genii (spirits) ; in'dex, in'dexes (tables of ref- 
erence), in' dices (algebraic signs) ; penny, pennies (pieces of money), 
pence (how much in value) ; staff, staves (sticks — better, staffs), 
staffs, officers ; flagstaff, flagstaffs ; distaff, distaffs. 

Beef, beeves / calf, calves; elf, elves ; half, halves ; knife, knives; 
leaf, leaves ; life, lives ; loaf, loaves ; self, selves ; sheaf, sheaves ; 
shelf, shelves; thief, thieves; wife, wives; wolf, wolves; wharf, 
wharfs or wharves. Other words ending with/ or fe, assume merely 
s : Fife, fifes ; skiff, skiffs. 



16 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

How are -words adopted from the Latin or Greek language, made plural ? 

The ending us is generally changed into iy um or 
ew, to a; is, to es ; a, to ce ; and cc or ex, to ces or ices. 

Ex. — Stimulus, stimuli ; arca'num, arca'na ; crisis, crises ; vor'tex, vor'tices. 

Some nouns do not change their form, to express either number ; as, Beer, 
sheep, swine, vermin, grouse, head (cattle), sail (ships), pair, dozen, series, species, 
apparatus, corps, means, news (generally singular), alms, wages (generally plural^ 
odds, amends, ethics, mathematics, etc. 

Some nouns, denoting generally objects that consist of two or many parts, 
are always plural ; as, Tongs, scissors, snuffers, ashes, stairs, dregs, pincers, lungs, 
trousers, drawers, hose, bowels, annals, ar' chives, ides, chops, clothes, thanks, riches, 
goods, bitters, victuals, oats, vetches, aborig'ines, mamma'lia, etc. 

How do you determine the number of a collective noun that is singular in form 1+ 

A collective noun is singular, when we regard the 
entire collection as one thing ; plural, when we refer 
to the individuals composing the collection. 

Ex. — The committee was large. The committee were not unanimous. 



Exercises. 

Atlas, atlases; halo, haloes; folio, folios; torch, torches; 
monarch, monarchs ; story, stories ; money, moneys ; German, Ger- 
mans ; Mussulman, Mussulmans ; larva, larvce ; lam'ina, lam' hue ; 
minu'tia, 7ninu'tia3 ; alum'na, alum' nee ; alum'nus, alum'nl ; ma'gus, 
ma'gl; ra'dius, ra'dil ; fo'cus, foci; nu'cleus, nuclei; arca'num, 
arcana ; da'tum, data ; memoran'dum, memoranda or memoran- 
dums ; stratum, strata ; phenomenon, 'phenomena ; sta'men, stam- 
ina; ge'nus, gen' era ; axis, axes ; crisis, crises ; oasis, o'ases ; thesis, 
theses ; pha'sis, phases ; ellip'sis, ellipses ; emphasis, em' phases ; 
hypoth'esis, hypoth'eses ; paren'thesis, paren! theses ; synop'sis, synop- 
ses ; syn'thesis, syntheses; appen'dix, appendices ; beau, beaux; 
monsieur, messieurs ; cherub, cherubs or cherubim ; seraph, seraphs 
or seraphim ; bandit, bandits or bandit' ti; brother-in-law, brothers- 
in-law; sister-in-law, sisters-in-law ; court-martial, courts-martial ; 
aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp ; billet-doux, billets-doux; cupful, cupfu Is • 
spoonful, spoonfuls ; man-servant, men-servants ; ignis fatuus, ignis 
fat m ; Miss Warner, the Misses Warner ; Mr. Hunter, the Messrs. 
Hunter ; Dr. Hunter, Drs. Hunter. 

Words Explained,— Singular, single, odd. Plural, from the Latin 
plus, more; more than one. Mr. is abbreviated from Mister ; Messrs., from the 
French Messieurs. Case ordinarily means state or condition. Relation, how one 
thing is to another. Sense, meaning. Con'strued, arranged according to the sense. 
Independently, having nothing to do with others. Ah'solutely, absolved, freed 
from something. Address, speak to. Exclaim, cry out. Participles and infin- 
itives, forms of the verb. Verb, a word expressing action or state. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 17 

cl. If I say, " Your brother's friend sent James to me ; 

Your friend's brother sent me to James; 

My brother's friend sent James to you; 

James sent your brother's friend to me; 

I sent ?/owr friend's brother to James ; 

You sent James to my friend's brother ;" you can easily see 
that all these sentences differ much from one another in meaning. The difference 
of meaning arises from the different relations of the words to one another, and 
these different relations are called cases. That objects exist or act, that objects 
are owned, or make parts of other objects, and that objects are acted upon, are 
the three chief conditions of things, on which cases are based. What, then, is 
case? 

Case is the sense or form in which nouns and pro- 
nouns are construed with other words, to express 
thought. 

There are three cases; the nominative, the posses- 
sive, and the objective. 

What does the nominative case denote ? 

The nominatiYe case denotes the condition of a 
noun or pronoun that is used as the subject of a 
predicate. 

Ex. — John struck James. (Who struck James ?) ^he rose is beau- 
tiful. (What is beautiful ?) Fishes swim in the sea, and birds fly in 
the air. Mary's bunch of flowers is fading. 

A noun or pronoun is also in the nominative case, 
when it is used independently or absolutely. 

Ex. — Independently : "John, come to me;" "Alas, poor Yorick!" 
"The Pilgrim Fathers, — where are they?" "Merchants' Bank." Abso- 
lutely: The tree having fallen, we returned;" "Bonaparte being banished, 
peace was restored;" "To become a scholar, requires exertion." 

Independently ; used in addressing persons or other objects, in ex- 
claiming, or in simply directing attention to an object. Absolutely ; used 
before a participle, or after a participle or an infinitive, without being governed 
by it or controlled by any other word. 



Exercises. 

Spell the plural of the following words : — 

Sofa, larva, house, mouse, feather-bed, booth, tooth, ox, box, root, 
foot, turf, wolf, genus, genius, isthmus, trio, cargo, valley, sally, alley, 
ally, rabbi, crutch, stomach, trellis, ellipsis, Mr. Jones, Mrs. Jones. 

JV*ord8 Explained. — Possessive, owning. Apos'trophe, turning or cut- 
ting off, something that shows omission : kingu crowne has become Icinif scrow* 



18 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

What does the possessive case denote? 

The possessive case denotes possession. 

Ex. — John's horse. My slate. The children's books. Boys' sports. 

Possession may be past, or future and merely intended, as well as present 
and actual; as, " Webster's Dictionary;" " Men's boots for sale here." The 
former example implies origin ; the latter, fitness. 

What is the regular sign of the possessive case ? 

An apostrophe, or comma above the line, followed 
by the letter s. 

Ex. — Mary's slate. Burns's poems. Men's affairs. 
Is the possessive * always expressed ? 

It is omitted from plural nouns ending with s, and 
sometimes also from singular nouns ending with s, or 
an s-sound. 

Ex. — The soldiers' camp. For conscience' sake. 

A singular noun ending with an s-sound, should generally have the apostrophe 
and s ; as, " Dennis's Works. " — Pope. " Louis's reign." — Macaulay. " Charles's 
affairs." — Prescott. It is often better to use of, or to make the possessive word 
an adjective; as, " The death of Socrates ;" " Lucas Place." 

"For conscience' sake," "For goodness' sake," etc., are rather idiomatic 
exceptions to the rule, than fair illustrations of a general principle. 

What does the objective case denote ? 

The objective case denotes the condition of a 
noun or pronoun that is used as the object of a verb 
or preposition. 

Ex. — This stream turns a mill. (Turns what ?) The water flows over the 
dam. (Over what ?) I saw her with him ? (Saw whom ? with whom ?) 

The object of a transitive verb or of a preposition, is the noun or pronoun 
required after it to make sense ; as, " I rolled a stone down the hill." Here stone 
is the object of the verb rolled, and hill is the object of the preposition down* 



Exercises. 

The noun or pronoun, and why; then the case, and why : — 
. John found Mary's book. Lucy's lamb nips the grass. Fair 
blooms the lily. He wrote his name in his book. John shot 
some squirrels in your father's field. Sweet fountain, once again I 
visit thee. The Greeks were more ingenious than the Romans 
[were]. The plough, the sword, the pen, and the needle, — how 

JW^ords Explained. — Idiomat'ic, peculiar, formed by custom without 
regard to rules. Principle, a rule or law, a truth that applies to many particulars. 
Objective, denoting an object ; and object, something thrown in the way, something 
aimed at or affected. Prep-o-si'-tion, from pre, before, and positio, placing : a 
word placed before others to show position or relation. Repetition, telling again. 
Explanation, telling what a thing is. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 19 

When must a noun or pronoun agree in case with another noun or pronoun ? 

When it is but a repetition of the other, or when it 
denotes, by way of explanation, the same thing. 

Ex. — I, 1, am the man. Friends, false friends, have ruined me. Smith is 
a barber. Smith the barber is my neighbor. 

How can the different cases of nouns he distinguished ? 

By their meanings : or, the nominative may be 
found by asking a question with who or what before 
the verb ; the objective, with whom or ivhat after the 
verb ; and the possessive is known by the apostrophe. 

Ex. — "Mary plucked flowers for John's sister. 1 ' Who plucked? — plucked 

what ? — for whom ? 

— r ♦ 

e. Having now shown vwu what properties nouns and pronouns have, I 
shall next show you, briefly and regularly, how the different nouns and pronouns 
are written to express these properties. This process is called declension. 

What, then, is it, to decline a noun or pronoun ? 

To decline a noun or pronoun, is to show, in some 
regular way, what forms it has to express its gram- 
matical properties. 

Observe that nouns sometimes remain unchanged, and that pronouns are 
sometimes wholly changed, to express their properties. 



Exercises. 

mighty ! To retreat was to lose all. (What was what ?) I know 
that you can learn. (I know what ?) Why he went, is plain. (What 
is plain ?) Promising and performing are two different things. 
On that day of desolation, 

Lady, I was captive made ; 
Bleeding for my Christian nation, 

By the walls of high Belgrade. — Campbell. 
Spell the possessive singular ; then the possessive plural, if the word can have it : — 
Sister, (thus : S-i-s-sis — t-e-r-apostrophe-s-ter's — Sister's,) John, 
day, Sparks, prince, horse, St. James, John Henry Thomson, he, one, 
who, other, she, it, court-martial, brother-in-law, bookkeeper ; the 
duke of Northumberland ; Allen and Baker ; Morris the bookseller ; 
Morris, the bookseller. 

W*ords Explained.— Decline', to chauge from one state or form into 
another. Supersede' ; to take the place of, because preferred. Style, mode of 
writing or speaking. Authority ; right to govern from greater merit, or through 
power derived from others. Empliat'ic, expressing an idea with greater force. 
Rejlex'ive % turning back upon itself, that tha act or relation reverts to the subject. 



20 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Nouns. 





Singular. 




Plural. 




Nominative. 


Possessive. Objective. 


Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective 


Boy, 


boy's, 


boy; 


boys, 


boys', 


boys. 


Man, 


man's, 


man; 


men, 


men's, 


men. 


Lady, 


lady's, 


lady ; 


ladies, 


ladies', 


ladies. 


Fox, 


fox's, 


fox; 


foxes, 


foxes', 


foxes. 


John, 


John's 


John. 












Pronouns. 










Singular. 




Plural. 




Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


1st Pers. 


I, 


my or mine, 


me ; we, 


our or ours, us. 


2d Pers. 


Thou, 
You, 


thy or thine, 
your or yours, 


thee ; ye, 
you ; you, 


J- your or y 


ours, you 



( Mas. He, his, hin 

3d Pers. •< Fern. She, her or hers, her ; \ they, their or theirs, them. 
' JSTeut. It, its, it ; 







Nom. or Obj 






Nom. or Obj. 




1. 


Myself (or ourself) ; 




ourselves. 




2. 


Thyself or yoi 


irself ; 




yourselves. 




3. 


Himself, herself, itself; 




themselves 






Nom. Poss. 


Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 




One, one's, 


one ; 


ones, 


ones', 


ones. 




Other, other's, other ; 


others 


others', 


others. 






'Who, 


whose, 


whom. 


( — ever or soever.) 






Which, 


whose, 


which. 










That, 


whose, 


that. 






Sing. 


or Plur. • 


What, 

As, 
. None, 




what. 

as. 

none. 







Decline oohn, man, boy, lady, fox, farmer, Benjamin, city. 
Decline /, thou, you, he, she, it, myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, 
one, other, who, whoever, whosoever, which, whichever, what, that, as, none. 

Thou is now superseded, in common usage, by you. Thou is still pre- 
ferred in addressing tbe Deity, and often in Scriptural or poetic style. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 21 

We may include, with the speaker, the person addressed, and the person 
spoken of. You may include, with the person addressed, the person spoken of. 
You, he, and I-=we ; thou or you and he=you. 

Editors, in speaking of themselves editorially, generally prefer we to I. This 
use of the plural pronoun denotes greater modesty or authority ; for it implies 
that the speaker is not alone in his opinion. 

©MF§, yours, hers, etc., are each equivalent to the simple possessive pro- 
noun and a noun ; as, " This is my hat, and that is yours," i. e., your hat. 

St sometimes denotes merely the state or condition of things ; as, " It 
snows;" "It was moonlight on the Persian sea;" "It is too dark here to read." 
Sometimes it introduces a sentence, and is explained by a following word, phrase, 
or clause ; as, " It is he ;" " It is she ;" " It was they ;" " It is mean to take advan- 
tage of another's distress ;" "It is perfectly plain that a straight line must be the 
shortest distance between two points.'" (What is plain ?) 

It is sometimes applied to creatures whose sex is not obvious or not impor- 
tant; as, "We found a young fawn, and caught U. n The sex, most gramma- 
rians say, is disregarded in such instances, and the words are neuter. But, since 
the nouns must, in such cases, be nearly always of the common gender, and 
since we can say, "It is he," "It is she," it may be as well to say it is of the 
common gender. ("The tiger broke its chain," seems less proper to me than, 
"The tiger broke his chain.") 

The compound personal pronouns of the first and the second person are 
composed of the simple possessive pronouns and self or selves ; those of the third 
person, of the objective pronouns and self or selves. These pronouns are used 
only in the nominative and the objective case, and they are either emphatic or 
reflexive in sense ; as, " He himself waited on his guest ;" " She deceived her- 
self" To express possession emphatically, own is used with the simple possess- 
ive pronoun ; as, " This is my own affair." 

None (no-one) may be used either as singular or plural. Each other properly 
relates to two only ; one another, to more. 



Exercises. 

What is the objective corresponding to — 

I ? — thou ? — we ?— ye ? — he ? — she % — it ? — they % — you ? — who ? 

What is the nominative corresponding to — 

Me ? — us ? — thee ? — him ? — whom ? — her ? — hers ? — them ? — 
themselves ? — herself? — it ? — which ? 

Form the compound pronoun : — 

My, our, thy, your, him, her, it, one, them, who, which, what. 

Of what gender, person, number, and case is each of the following pronouns ? — 

Him, his, its, he, them, it, I, you, thy, their, she, thou, me, your, 
us, they, my, mine, thine, yours, it, hers, others, theirs, we, thee, our, 
ours, ye, myself, ourself, themselves, ourselves, thyself, yourselves, 
yourself, himself, itself, herself, one, none, one's, ones*, other, others', 
who, what, which, whatever. 

2 



22 



3. ARTICLES. 

If I say, "Give me a book," you understand that any book will answer my 
purpose ; but if I say, " Give me the book," you understand that I want some 
particular book. If I say, " Missouri is north of Arkansas," I mean States ; but 
if I say, " The Missouri is north of the Arkansas," I mean rivers. These little 
words, a and the, which often have so important an effect on the sense of nouns, 
are called articles. What, then, is an article ? 

An article is a word placed before a noun, to show 
how the noun is applied. 

Ex. — Man is made for society ; but a man naturally prefers the man whoso 
temper and inclinations best suit his own. 

How many articles are there, and what are they ? 

Two : the, the definite article ; and a or an, the 

indefinite article. 

What does the definite article show ? 

The definite article shows that some particular 
object or group is meant. 

Ex. — The horse, the horses, the stage, the Connecticut ; the green meadows ; 
the iron-bound bucket ; the brave Pulaski. 
What does the indefinite article show ? 

The indefinite article shows that no particular 
one of the kind is meant. 

Ex. — A bird, a mouse, an apple, a cherry, a carriage ; an idle boy. 
How do a and an differ ? 

In application only ; in meaning, they are the same. 

Where is an used ? 

Before words beginning with a vowel sound. 

Ex. — An article, an enemy, an inch, an urn, an hour, an honor. 



Exercises. 

The article, and why ; whether definite or indefinite, and why ; and to what it 



The roses in the garden. The rose is a beautiful flower. A 
fish from the river. A daughter of a duke. The daughter of the 
duke. A daughter of the duke. An eagle's nest. 

fforcfs Explained.— Article, joint ; because, in the Greek language, 
from which the word is taken, it sometimes encloses a noun on each side, as two 
joints enclose a limb, or as that encloses man in the expression, " that man that I 
saw." Understand', see with the mind. Definite, setting bounds to. Indefin- 
ite, not definite. Application, a putting to something else. 



ADJECTIVES. 23 

"Where is a used ? 

Before words beginning with a consonant sound. 

Ex. — A banquet, a cucumber, a dunce, a fox, a horse, a jug, a king, a lion, 
a youth, a university, a eulogy ; a one-horse carriage. 

4. ADJECTIVES. 

The nouns and pronouns, as you remember, denote objects. But our regard 
for objects depends not a little on their qualities and circumstances ; and hence 
there is a large class of words to express these, for all the various purposes of 
life. The word apple, for instance, denotes something that may be red, large, 
ripe, mellow, juicy. And when I say, " that apple, this apple, every apple, four 
apples, the fourth apple," the slanting words show, without expressing quality, 
more precisely what I mean. These qualifying and designating — these descrip- 
tive and definitive words, which generally add an idea to that of the noun, are 
therefore called adjectives. What, then, is an adjective ? 

An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

Ex. — Green, good, lazy, talL wise, religious. A lay horse ; a sharp knife ; 
a sharper knife ; a bright day ; golden clouds ; a gold watch ; Missouri apples ; 
a rustling aspen ; that sun-tipped elm ; a boy nine years old, who is sick. 

Adjectives may be divided into two classes ; de- 
scriptive and definitive. In stead of these words, qual- 
ifying and specifying may also be used. 

What is a descriptive adjective ? 

A descriptive adjective describees or qualifies. 

Ex — A rapid river ; the blue sky ; a modest woman. She is beautiful, 
amiable, and intelligent. The rippling brook ; leaving woods ; a broken pitcher. 
The last three adjectives, and others like them, are called participial adjectives. 



Exercises. 

Place the proper indefinite article before each of the following words or 
phrases : — 

Razor, house, knife, humming-bird, chicken, ounce, insult, unit, 
ox, ball, hundred, African ; interesting story ; humble cottage ; use- 
ful instrument ; honest man ; honorable deed. 

Words Explained.— Ad'jective, from the Latin ad, to, and jectus, 
thrown ; thrown or joined to something else, adding an idea to. Quality, the 
nature of a thing for a long time. Condition, the nature of a thing for a short 
time. Circumstances, surroundings, what accompanies the main thing; thus, 
when an act is done, the time, place, manner, moans, etc., are its circumstances. 
Designating, pointing out. Descriptive, telling what something is. Detin'ttive^ 
showing which or how many. Limits, sets bounds to the meaning. Modifies, 
affects or varies the meaning. Principal, chief. 



24 ADJECTIVES. 

What is a definitive adjective ? 

A definitive adjective merely limits or modifies. 

Ex. — Four peaches ; all peaches ; some peaches ; this peach. 
"Which are the principal definitive adjectives ? 

All, any, both, certain, each, every, either, else, few, 
many, many a, much, neither, no, one, other, own, 
same, some, such, that, this, very, what, which, and 
yon or yonder. 

Also, one, two, three, etc. ; first, second, third, etc. 

Nearly all the adjectives of the first class are usually called pronominal adjec- 
tives, some of them being occasionally used as pronouns ; and those of the sec- 
ond class are called numeral adjectives. Since we may refer to objects definitely, 
indefinitely, or distribulively, the pronominal adjectives are accordingly, some of 
them, definite or demonstrative, as this, that, yonder ; some, indefinite, as any, some, 
other ; and some, distributive, as each, every, either, neither, many a. And since 
we may either count or number, some of the numeral adjectives are called cardi- 
nal, as one, two, three ; and the others, ordinal, as first, second, third. 

Either and neither properly relate to one of two ; any, any one, or none, should 
be applied to more. This refers to the nearer of two ; that, to the more distant 



Since the same quality may exist in different objects, and in the same degree 
or in different degrees, — as, " red cheeks, red roses, red hair, redder cheeks, the 
reddest roses," — adjectives have what grammarians call the degrees of comparison. 
What, then, is meant, in grammar, by comparison ? 

Comparison, in grammar, denotes the forms in 
which adjectives and adverbs are expressed, to show 
the quality and its degrees. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; ihojiositice, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 



Exercises. 

The adjective, and why ; whether descriptive or definitive, and why ; and to 
what it belongs : — 

The blue sky. The sky is blue. An aspiring man. A 
modest and beautiful woman, with eyes bright, blue, and affectionate. 
The night grew darker and darker. That field has been in cultiva- 
tion four years. The first car is not full, having but one man in it. 
The landscape was fresh with dew and bright with morning light. 
The rosy-fingered Morn. The star-powdered galaxy. The apples 

W*ord8 Explained. — Pronom'inal, resembling a pronoun. Distrib'- 
utively, taken one by one. Demon' strative, pointing out exactly what is meant. 
Numeral, expressing number. Cardinal, chief, the most important or common. 
Ordinal, expressing order. Degree, a step or grade. 



ADJECTIVES. 23 

How does the positive degree describe an object ? 

The positive degree ascribes to an object the 
quality simply, or an equal degree of it. 

Ex. — High, rocky, polite, black, prudent ; as while as snow. 
How does the comparative degree describe an object ? 

The comparative degree ascribes to an object 
the quality in a higher or a lower degree. 

Ex. — Higher, rockier, politer, better, more prudent, less prudent. 
How does the superlative degree describe an object ? 

The superlative degree ascribes to an object the 
quality in the highest or the lowest degree. 

Ex. — Highest, rockiest, politest, best, most prudent, least prudent. 

How are adjectives of one syllable compared, to express increase of the quality ? 

By adding er or est to the word in the positive 
degree. 

Ex. — Pos. great, comp. greater, superl. greatest ; wise, wiser, wisest. See p. 153. 
What adjectives of two syllables are compared by annexing er and est? 

Adjectives of two syllables ending in y or fe, or 
accented on the second syllable. 

Ex. — Pos. lovely, comp. lovelier, superl. loveliest; able, abler, ablest ; serene^ 
serener, serenest. 

How do we compare other adjectives of two syllables, all adjectives of more 
syllables, and sometimes adjectives of any length ? 

Other adjectives of two syllables, all adjectives of 
more syllables, and sometimes adjectives of one syl- 
lable, are compared by placing more and most before 
the positive. 

Ex. — Pos. beautiful, comp. more beautiful, superl. most beautiful ; active, more 
active, most active ; unlucky, more unlucky, most unlucky. The more nice and 
degant parts. — Johnson. By far the most rich and copious. — Pope. 
A foot more light, a step more true, 
Ne'er from the heath-flower dashed the dew. — Scott. 



Exercises. 

boiled soft. Now fairer blooms the drooping rose. His hammock 
swung loose at the sport of the wind. He is asleep. This is a 
broad, deep, clear, swift, and winding river. 

W*©rds Explained, — Positive, laid down, certain, referring to nothing 
else. Comparative, reckoned by comparison. Superlative, from the Latin 
Super, over, beyond, and latus, carried ; beyond all others. Irreguktr, not accord- 
ing to rule, differing from most of its kind. Propriety, good sense as to fitness. 



ADJECTIVES. 



Some words are expressed in the superlative degree, by annexing most to 
them ; as, Inmost, innermost, utmost (outmost), uppermost, nethermost. 

A high degree of the quality, without implying direct comparison, is ex- 
pressed by very, exceedingly, a most, etc. ; as, Very respectful, exceedingly polite, 
a most ridiculous affair. 

Some adjectives are not compared according to the foregoing rules, and are 
therefore said to be irregular. The following is a list : — 



Positive. 


Compar. 


Superl. 


Positive. 


Compar. 


Superl. 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Hind, 


hinder, 


hindmost. 


Bad, ill, or evil, 


worse, 


worst. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


Much or many, 


more, 


most. 


(Forth,) 


further, 


furthest. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 


Near, 


nearer, 


nearest, or next. 


Pore, 


former, 


foremost, or 


Late, 


later, latter, 


latest, or last. 






first. 


Old, 


older, elder, 


oldest, or eldest. 



Elder and eldest are applied to persons only; older and oldest, to persons or 

things. Later and latest refer to time ; latter and last, generally to order in place. 

How are adjectives compared when we wish to express decrease of the quality ? 

By less and least. 

Ex. — TVise, less wise, least wise ; arrogant, less arrogant, least arrogant. 

A little of the quality may be expressed by annexing ish to the positive, or 
by placing before it, rather, somewhat, etc. ; as, Black, blackish; salt, saltish; 
disagreeable, somewhat disagreeable ; young, rather young. 

Can all adjectives be compared ? 

Some can not be compared with propriety. 

Ex. — Eternal straight, equal, perpendicular, two-edged, speechless, four. 



Exercises. 

Compare, of the following adjectives, tlwse which can be compared : — 
Wise, studious, near, good, evil, melodious, high, tuneful, saucy, 
eloquent, expressive, lovely, nimble, late, many, much, few, little, old, 
glowing, accomplished, expert, half-finished, full, counterfeit, grace- 
ful, meagre, worthless, bottomless, fundamental, ornamental, vernal, 
green, sluggish, suuburnt, free, first. 

Mention and spell the three degrees of comparison : — 

Strong, weak, light, gay, rough, nice, coarse, fierce, white, ripe, 
thin, slim, dim, fit, hot, fat, glad, big, droll, dry, sprightly, manly, 
gentle, feeble, noble, idle, discreet, remote, sublime, profound. 

Compare by using less and least : — 

Broad, convenient, confident, oily, troublesome, thick, joyful, sor- 
rowful, exorbitant, exact, indulgent, handsome. 

Join suitable adjectives to each of the following nouns : — 

Moon, field, fountain, trees, garden, horse, willow, man, woman, 
pen, ink, day, wood, boys, thoughts, feelings, actions, conduct. 



VERBS. 27 

Good writers, however, sometimes compare such adjectives, when they do 
not take them in their full sense. " Our sight is the most perfect of our senses." 
— Addison. This means that it approaches nearer, than the rest, to perfection, 
"And love is still an emptier name."— Goldsmith. 

Is the word which the adjective qualifies or limits, always expressed ? 

It is not ; but, in parsing, it must be supplied. 

Ex. — " These apples are better than those" [apples]. " The idle [persons] 
are generally mischievous." "Nearly all [the soldiers] were captured." 

5. YERBS. 

If we look into the world, we shall find, that, to the many different beings 
and things denoted by nouns and pronouns, belong not only many different 
qualities, denoted by adjectives, but also many different motions, actions, and 
states of existence, which are expressed by certain words called verbs ; as, John 
reads, writes, runs, and plays. "What, then, is a verb, or what is its chief use in 
language ? 

A verb is a word used to affirm something of a 
subject. 

Ex. — The wind blows. The rose blooms. The tree is dead. Brutus 
stabbed Caesar. Caesar was stabbed by Brutus. Bo you not study 7 Do 
(you) study diligently. (For the meaning of the word affirm, see page 4.) 

"What must every verb denote ? 

Some kind of action or state. 



"When verbs are actually used to express affirmations, they are called finite 
verbs ; but there are two forms of the verb which do not express affirmations, 
and which are called the participle and the infinitive : as, Writing, written, being 
written, having written, having been written ; to write, to have written, to be writ- 
ten, to have been written. 

Exercises. 

The verbs, and why : — 

The sun rises. Saddle your horse. Bees collect honey. 
Honey is collected by bees. The bird nutters. The workmen 
have built the house. Pinks are fragrant. The thunder was 
rolling. The problems should have been solved. The mill can 
not grind with the water that has passed. Riches are got with 
pain, kept with care, and lost with grief. Drunkenness makes a 
man's eyes red, bloats his face, empties his purse, wastes his prop- 
erty, poisons his blood, destroys his digestion, blunts his feelings, 
corrupts his body and mind, disgraces his family, and shortens his life. 

JV^ords Explained, — Verb means word, or, pre-eminently, tlie word: 
grammarians have called this part of speech so, because it makes the chief part of 
e very grammar, or because it is the chief word of language. States of existence, how 
things are. Finite verb, a verb that must be affirmed of a nominative. 



28 VERBS. 

What, then, is a participle ? 

A participle is a form of the verb, that merely 
assumes the act or state, and is generally construed 
like an adjective. 

A tree, bending with fruit. (A tree, full of fruit.) The man was found 
imprisoned. (The man was found dead.) John is studying. (John is studious.) 

What is an infinitive ? 

An infinitive is a form of the verb, that begins 
generally with to, and expresses no affirmation. 

Ex. — An opportunity to study. He is obliged to sell. It is too dark to 
travel. He seems to have been disappointed. 
Of how many words may a verb consist ? 

Of as many as four. 

Ex. — Eagles soar. The house was built. The mail may have arrived. 
These lessons should have been learned. To have been writing. 



Almost every verb may be expressed in a great variety of ways or forms ; 
thus, from write we have writing, wrote, written, writes, writeth, writest, to 
write, to have written, to be written, to have been written, to be writing, to have been 
writing, having written, having been written, is written, was written, should be writ- 
ten, is writing, was writing, can write, must write, will write, shall write, would 
write, should write, may write, might write, may be written, may be writing, may 
have been writing, might have been written, mightst have been writing, etc., etc. 

Now, that we may be enabled to master all these different forms, — under- 
stand their meanings, and thus be enabled to use them correctly, — grammarians 
have found it best to divide verbs into certain classes, and also to regard them 
as having certain properties. 

How are verb3 classified ? I form. 

Into regular and irregular, with reference to their 
Into transitive and intransitive, with reference to 
their meaning or use. 

What is a regular verb ? 

A regular verb takes the ending eel, to form its 
preterit and its perfect participle. 

Ex. — Present play, peterit played, perfect participle played; move, moved, 
moved; regret, regretted, regretted. (See page 153.) In stead of preterit, the 
pupil may also say past, a less appropriate but more euphonic word. 

JW^ords Explaineil.—rar'tieiple, partaking of; having the nature of a 
verb and of an adjective or a noun. Con'strued like an txtfeetioe, arranged in the 
same way with other words of a sentence. Infin'itive, from in, not, andjinifus, 
bounded ; not bound, free, not obliged to have a nominative. Regular, according 
to rule, like most of its kind. Euphon'ic, agreeable in sound. 



29 



What is an irregular verb ? 

An irregular verb does not take the ending ed, 
to form its preterit and its perfect participle. 

Ex. — Present see, preterit saw, perfect participle seen ; speak, spoke, spoken. 
"Which are the principal parts of the verb, or those from which all the other 
parts can be formed ? 

The principal parts are the present, or the simplest 
form as registered in a dictionary ; the preterit, or the 
simplest form affirming past matter of fact ; and the 
perfect participle, or the form making sense with the 
word having or being. 

Ex. — Present, walk, write; pret, (I) walked, (I) wrote; perf. part., having 
walked, being written. To the principal parts given, may be added the present 
participle; which, since it ends always with ing, is too well known to need men- 
tioning. It may be mentioned, however, before the perfect participle. 

List of Irregular Verbs.* 

The following catalogue shows the principal parts of all the irregular verbs. 
Having learned these, the pupil also knows the principal parts of all the other 
verbs, which must be regular. He must not infer, however, from the word 
irregular, that these words are a mere straggling offshoot from the language ; for 
they are really the very core or pith of it. 



Present. Preterit, or Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Present. 


Preterit, or Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Arise, 
Awake, 


arose, 
awoke, r. 


arisen. 

awaked, 

awoke.* 


Beat, 
Become, 


beat, 
became, 


beaten, 

beat. 

become. 


Be or am, 


was, 


been. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Bear 


bore, 


born. 


Beget, 


begot, 


begotten, 


(bring forth), 


bare, 


begat,* 


begot. 


Bear {carry), 


bore, 


borne. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 



Jf^ords Explained.— Pret'erit, from the Latin prceter, past, and itus, 
gone ; gone by or past. Perfect, from the Latin per, through, and feet us, made ; made 
throughout, finished. The present is either the present indicative, or the present 
infinitive without to. According to Greek and Latin dictionaries, it is the former ; 
according to Teutonic or old English dictionaries, it is the latter. Reg'istered; 

}>nt in order, so as to be easily found. Cat'alogue, a regular list. Ancient, used 
ong ago. Poet'ic, used by poets. Defective, wanting. Re-dun f -dant, overflow- 
ing, having more than enougn. Be was formerly used for am, are, is, etc. 

* In using irregular verbs, we are liable to error for the most part only in the use of those 
whose preterit and whose perfect participle are not alike. Those verbs have therefore been 
given first, and separate from the rest, that they may be learned perfectly. IJ. denotes that 
the regular form may also be used in stead of the other. * denotes that the form under it is 
seldom used, beins either ancient, poetic, or of late introduction. The form supposed to be 
of the best present usage, is placed first. The second form of some verbs is preferable, when 
applied in a certain way ; as, "freighted with spices and silks, 11 "\fraught with mischief;" 
"thunderst/vicA-," " sorrow-stfrtc&en-." — Commit to memory the unmarked forms only. 
2* 



30 



Bid, 

Bite, 
Blow, 

Break, 

Chide, 

Choose, 
Cleave 

{adhere), 
Cleave 

(split), 
Come, 

Crow, 

Dare 
(venture), 



Preterit, or Past. 

bid, 

bade, 

bit, 

blew, 

broke, 

brake* 



Perfect Part. 
bid, 
bidden, 
bitten, bit. 
blown, 
broken, 
broke.* 
chidden, 
chid, 
chosen. 

cleaved. 



chid, 

chose, 

cleaved, 

clave,"* 

cleft, clove, cleft, 

clave, cloven. 

came, 

crowed. 

crew, 

dared, b 

durst, 



come. 



crowed. 



dared. 



(Dare, challenge ; regular.) 
Dive, dived < 



Do 

(principar verb), 
Draw, 

Drink, 

Drive, 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Fly, 

Forbear, 
Forget, 

Forsake, 
Freeze, 

Freight, 

Get, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grow, 



dove, 
did, 
drew, 
drank, 

drove, 
ate, eat, 
fell, 
flew, 
forbore, 

forgot, 

forsook, 
froze, 

freighted, 

g ot > 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

grew, 



dived, 
done. 

drawn. 

drunk, 

drank.* 

driven. 

eaten, eat.* 

fallen. 

flown. 

forborne. 

forgotten, 

forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

freighted, 

fraught. 

got, gotten. 

given. 

gone. 

graven, r. 

grown. 



Present. 


Preterit, or Past. 


Perfect Pari. 


Heave 




heaved, 


heaved, 


' 




hove, 


hoven.* 


Hew, 




hewed, 


hewn, r. 


Hide, 




hid, 


hidden, bid. 


Hold, 




held, 


held, 
holden. - * 


Know, 




knew, 


known. 


Lade (load), 


laded, 


laden, r. 


Lie (repose), 


%, 


lain. 


(Lie, speak falsely ; regular.) 


Mow, 




mowed, 


mown, r. 


Prove, 




proved, 


proved, 
proven.* 


Rend, 




rent, 


rent, R. a * 
rode, 


Ride, 




rode, 
rang, 


ridden. 


Ring, 






rung. 






rung, 




Rise, 




rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 




rived, 


riven, r.* 


Run, 




ran, 


run. 


Saw, 




sawed, 


sawn, r. 


See, 




saw, 


seen. 






seethed, 


seethed, 


Seethe, 






OAfl/ion 



Shake, 
Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Show, 

Shrink, 

Slay, 

Slide, 



Smite, 



Sing, 



shook, 
shaped,. 

shaved, 

sheared, 

shore,* 

showed, 

shrunk, 

shrank, 

slew, 

slid, r., 
smote, 



shaken. 

shaped, 

shapen.* 

shaved, 

shaven. 

shorn, r. 

shown, r. 

shrunk, 

shrunken.* 

slain. 

slidden, 

slid, r. 

smitten, 

smit. 



sung. 



(a.) My tongue clave to the roof of my 
crass. — Macaulay. (c.) Beholden ; with] 
forests are vended.— W. Scott. 



mouth. - 
holden* 



sung, 

sang, 

Dickens, (b.) This line he dared not 
(</.) Come as the winds come when 



31 



Present. 


Preterit, or Past 


. Perfect Part. 


Present. 


Preterit, or Past. 


Perfect Part 


Sink, 


sunk, 
sank. 


sunk. 


Strow, 


strowed, 
swore, 


strown, r. 


Sow (scatter), sowed, 


sown, r. 


Swear, 


sware, 


sworn. 




spoke, 
spake * 




Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen. 


Speak, 


spoken. 




swum, 










Swim, 




swum. 


Spin, 


spun, 
span,* 


spun. 


Take, 


swam, 
took, 


taken. 


Spit, 


spit, 


spit, 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


spat,* 


spitten.* 


Thrive, 


thrived, 


thrived, 


(Spit, pierce with a spit ; regular.) 


throve, 


thriven. 


Spring, 


sprung, 




Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


sprang, 


sprung. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


trode,* 


trod. 




strode, 


stridden, 






waxed, 


Stride, 


strid, 


strid. 


"Wax (grow), waxed, 


waxen.* 






struck, 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Strike, 


struck, 


stricken. 


Weave, 


wove, r., 


* woven, r.* 


Strive, 


strove, r 


* striven, r* 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


3 


. The Two Past or the Three Forms -AJilte. 


Present. 


Preterit, or Past 


Perfect Part. 


Present. 


Preterit, or Pas 


'. Perfect Part. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Catch, 


caught, r., : 


* caught, r.* 


Belay, 


belaid, r., 


belaid, r. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Bend, 


bent, r., 


bent, r. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clothed, 


Bereave, 


bereft, r., 


bereft, r. 


clad, 


clad. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Bet, 


bet, r., 


bet, r. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Betide, 


betided, 


betided. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


betid,* 


betid* 


Deal, 


dealt, r.,* 


dealt, r.* 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Dig, 


dug, R., 


dug, R. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, r., 


dwelt, r. 


Blend, 


blended, 


blended, 


Dream, 


dreamed, 


dreamed, 


blent,* 


blent* 


dreamt, 


dreamt. 


Bless, 


blessed, 


blessed, 


Dress, 


dressed, 


dressed, 


blest, 


blest. 


drest,* 


drest.* 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred, 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Build, 


built, r., 


built, r. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Burn, 


burned, 


burned, 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


burnt, 


burnt. 


-Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, gilded, gilt. 



82 



Present. 

Gird, 

Grind, 

Hang, 

Have 



Preterit, or Past. Perfect Part. 



girt, R., 
ground, 
hung, r., 
had, 



(principal verb), 



Hear, 

Hit, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 

Lead, 
Lean, 

Leap, 

Learn, 

Leave, 
Lend, 
Let, 

Light, 

Lose, 
Make, 
Mean, 
Meet, 

Pass, 

Pay, 
Pen 



heard, 
hit, 
hurt, 
kept, 
knelt, r. 
knit, r., 
laid, 
led, 
leaned, 
leant, 
leaped, 
leapt,* 
learned, 
learnt, 
left, 
lent, 
let, 

lighted, 
lit, 
lost, 
made, 
meant, 
met, 
passed, 
past,* 
paid, 
penned, 
(fence in), pent, 
"^n, write; regular,) 
pleaded, 



girt, r. 
ground, 
hung, r." 
had. 

heard, 
hit 
hurt, 
kept, 
knelt, R. 
knit, r. 
laid, 
led. 

leaned, 
leant, 
leaped, 
leapt.* 
learned, 
learnt, 
left, 
lent, 
-let. 
lighted, 
lit, 
lost, 
made, 
meant, 
met. 



past b 
paid, 
penned, 
pent. 



pleaded, 
^ad, pled, plead, pled. 



ead, 

toft, 

Rap, 
"Read, 



put, 

quit, *•> 

rapP ed ' 

rap^, 

xead. 



T apP cu ' 
iapt- c 
read- 



Present. Preterit, or Past. Perfect Par* 



Reave,* 
Kid, 

Roast, 



Seek, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Shred, 

Shut, 

Sit, 

Sleep, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Split, 

Spoil, 

Spread, 

Stay, 

String, 

Stave, 

Stand, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

Sweat, 

Sweep, 



reft, 
rid, 

roasted, 

said, 

sought, 

sold, 

sent, 

set, 

shed, 



reft. 

rid. 

roasted, 

roast. b 

said. 

sought. 

sold. 

sent. 

set. 

shed. 



*at» 






shone, r.,* shone, r.* 

shod, shod. 

shot, shot. 

shred, shred. 

shut, shut 

sat, sat 

slept, slept. 

slung, slung. 

slunk, slunk. 

slit, r., slit, R. 

smelt, r., smelt, r. 

sped, r.,* sped, r.* 

spelled, spelled, 

spelt, spelt, 

spent, spent 

spilt, r., spilt, R. 

split, r.,* split, R* 

spoiled, spoiled, 

spoilt,* spoilt.* 

spread, spread, 

staid, r., staid, R. d 

strung, strung, R.* 

stove, r., stove, r. 

stood, stood. . 

stuck, stuck, 

stung, stung, 
stunk, 

stank ; * Btank 

sweat, r., sweat, r. 
swet, 

swept, swept. 

-nith intent to kill : but the distinction 

or as a noun. ('.) Eap, rapt, rapt; 

-top. («.) Stringed instruments. 



ow?".r 






33 



Present 

Swing, 

Teach, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrust, 

Wake, 

Wed, 

Weep, 
Wet, 
Win, 
Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 



Preterit, or Past. 
swung, 

taught, 

told, 

thought, 

thrust, 

woke, r., 

wedded, 

wed,* 

wept, 

wet, r., 

won, 

wound, 

worked, 

wrought, 

wrung, 



Perfect Part. 
swung, 
taught, 
told, 
thought, 
thrust, 
woke, r. 
wedded, 
wed* 
wept, 
wet, r. 
won. 
wound, 
worked, 
wrought, 
wrung. 



Present. Preterit, or Past. Perfect Pari. 

Beware, 

Can, could, 

Do (auxil'y) did, 

Have, " 

May, 

Must, 

Ought, 

Shall, 
Will, « 



had, 

might, 

must, 

OUght, : 

quoth, ' 

should, 

would, 

(Will, wish, bequeath; regular.) 

Wit, ^ 

Wot,* I wot,* 

Wis,* | wist,* 

Weet,*J wote,* 



What are the last few verbs usually called ? 

Defective, because some of the parts are wanting ; 
and verbs having more parts than are absolutely nec- 
essary, are termed redundant, as bereave, slide, swim. 

How are formed the principal parts of verbs derived from other verbs by 
means of prefixes ? 

Generally in the same way as those of their prim- 
itives. 

Ex. — Take, took, taken; mistake, mistook, mistaken; undergo, underwent, 
undergone. But behave, engrave, and welcome, are regular. 



Exercises. 



is regular or irregular, and 



Give the principal parts ; and tell whether the i 
why : — 

Form, attack, strip, deny, bow, sow, grow, sew, sin, win, spin, rise, 
despise, moralize, skim, swim, heal, steal, fling, bring, spread, dread, 
fold, hold, uphold, close, lose, choose, blind, find, fine, spurn, burn, 
reel, feel, blend, send, tend, lend, loan, tent, need, feed, blight, fight, 
wink, drink, slink, squeak, speak, steep, sleep, cleave, weave, leave, 
reach, teach, fret, get, let, whet, smut, put, agree, free, see, flee, fly, 
cry, spite, bite, write, take, make, bake, bare, dare, stray, pay, slay, 
may, trick, click, stick, call, fall, fell, bind, bound, grind, ground, 
heat, eat, roam, come, welcome, hive, strive, live, give, forgive, undo, 
undergo, counteract, say, gainsay, will, till, shall, cull, have, shave, 
Jand, stand, am, be, rise, raise, tell, toll, quell, die, lie, lay, fit, hit, sit, 
seat, set. 



34 VERBS. 

"What is a transitive verb ? 

A transitive verb is a verb that has an object. 

Ex. — John struck James. (Struck whom ?) Cats eat rats and mice. (Eat 
what ?) I know him. The house has a portico. To run a race. 

A transitive verb always implies both a doer and an object, and either can bo 
made its subject. If the object is made the subject, the verb must bo expressed 
in what is called the passive voice, and is then often called a passive verb. (See 
next page.) 

Describe an intransitive verb ? 

f An intransitive verb does not have an object. 

Ex. — John walks. The child cries. The rose blooms. Webster was 
eloquent. Webster was an orator. Alice reads and writes well. 

A few of the intransitive verbs, as, be, lie, remain, etc., imply no action or 
exertion, and are frequently called neuter verbs, as being neither active nor 
passive. Be is the chief neuter verb, and extends alono farther than all the 
active verbs together ; for existence is a more general idea than action. 

What properties have verbs ? 

Voices, moods, tenses, persons, and num- 
bers. 

Exercises. 

The verbs, and why; whether transitive or intransitive, and why ; and if 
intransitive, whether neuter, and why 7 

Men build houses. Dogs bark. The horse kicked the man. 
The horse kicks. He talks well. He talks nonsense. I knew 
him, but he did not know me. The crew captured and sold a 
whale. We are gathering plums and cherries. She grieves and 
weeps. The picture hung on the wall. Then arose Lord Chat- 
ham. Such as I am I have always been, and always shall be. 
Spare superfluities, to supply necessaries. You might have assisted 
us. He seated himself. He sat in a corner. lie set a trap for 
a rat. Lay the book where it lay before. Having written his let- 
ter, he sealed it. Give him a knife. The fields look fresh and 
green. Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again. Boys 
like to play. (Like what ?) Children do not consider how much 
has been done for them by their parents. (Consider what ?) Who 
knows who he is ? 

Words Explained.— Transitive, from the Latin trans, over, and itus, 
gone ; going or passing over : a transitive verb generally denotes an act that passes 
over from the subject to the object. Intran'sitive, from in, not, and transitive ; 
not transitive. Passive, suffering or receiving. Voice-^ the voice expresses tone, 
and thereby our state, whether as acting or as suffering. Id'iom, a mode of ex- 
pression peculiar to a language. Classic languages; the Latin, Greek, and sim- 
ilar languages. 



VERBS. 35 

a. A transitive verb can generally be expressed in two different ways ; as, 
"John struck James," " James was struck by John :" and hence transitive verbs 
are said to have two voices. What, then, is voice ? 

Voice is a property of transitive verbs that shows 
whether the subject does or receives the act. 

There are two voices ; the active and the passive. 

What does the active voice denote ? 

The active voice represents the subject as acting, 
or the verb as relating to an object. 

Ex. — David slew Goliath. John resembles his father. 
What does the passive voice denote ? 

The passive voice represents the subject as acted 
upon, or the verb as having the object for its subject. 

Ex. — Goliath was slain by David. This farm was owned by them. 

When a transitive verb is made passive, the object no longer remains the 
object, but becomes the subject. Voice, unlike the other properties of verbs, 
does not extend through all verbs, but belongs to transitive verbs only. A few 
intransitive verbs, however, are sometimes passive in form, but they are not 
passive in sense ; as, " He is gone. — Scott. " The melancholy days are come" — 
Bryant. This is an imitation of a French idiom, in which be is used for have. 
On the other hand, verbs are sometimes active in form but passive in sense ; as, 
" This timber saws well" — capacity to receive the act in a certain way. " Your 
poem reads smoothly." " We could easily see what was doing on the other side 
of the river." So, "Virgil describes some spirits as purging in fire, to recover the 
primitive beauty of their nature." — Addison. "You may be sure he has an ax 
io grind." — Franklin. This is an imitation of an idiom in the Classic languages. 

In the following, the object of the preposition is made the subject : " Col. 
Butler was accordingly written to, and ordered to hasten forward with the volun- 
teers." — Irving. (Compound passive verb.) 



Exercises. 

The verbs, and why ; whether in the active voice or in the passive, and why :— 
The water turns the wheel. The wheel is turned by the water. 
The horse carries his rider. The horse was hitched to the buggy. 
Mary is reading her book. The book is read. Most people are 
influenced by their neighbors. You could have learned the lesson. 
The lesson might have been learned by you. Having taught, hav- 
ing been taught, to have taught, to have been taught, to have 
been teaching. Since these men could not be persuaded, it was 
determined to persecute them. The workmen are building the 
house. The house is building. Green maple saws well. He 
was never heard of afterwards. 



86 VERBS. 

b. If I say, "I write" I express a matter of fact; " I may or can write" I 
express what is not matter of fact, yet may become such ; " If I were writing" I 
express a mere supposition; " Write" I request it to be done; " To write" 
"Writing" I simply speak of the act. These different modes of expressing the 
verb, grammarians call moods. "What, then, does mood express? 

Mood expresses the manner of assertion. 

Most grammarians reckon five moods ; the indica- 
tive, the subjunctive, the potential, the imperative, and 
the infinitive. 

How does the indicative mood express the act or state ? 

The indicative mood affirms something as an 
actual occurrence or fact. 

Ex. — God created this beautiful world. The guilty are not happy. 
"If I am deceived" "If I was deceived" are still in the indicative mood, and 
not in the subjunctive ; for they assume somethiug as matter of fact. 
How does the subjunctive mood express the act or state ? 

The subjunctive mood affirms something as a 
future contingency, or as a mere supposition, wish, or 
conclusion. 

If it rain to-night, our plants will live. Were I a lawyer, I should not liko 
to plead a rogue's case. (But I am not.) 0, had I the wings of a dova — Cow- 
per. But if I asked [ should ask] your papa, he would only say you had better 
[to] stay [it would he better for you to stay] at home. — Buhver. If conscience 
had had as strong a hold on his mind as honor, he had still been [would still have 
been] innocent. — British Essayists. Some of theso forms are good old rather 
than good modern English. 

Exercises. 

Change the following sentences so as to make the active verbs passive, and the 
passive verbs active : — 

The sun adorns the world. Indolence produces misery. My 
neighbor has planted some apple-trees. The dog bit the stranger. 
The distance was measured by a surveyor. Morse invented the tele- 
graph. The boat was built by Ericsson. Can the river be forded, 
at this place, by a man on horseback ? lie paid for the carriage. 
The ministers speak of peace. He was expected to strike. 

JW*ords Explained.— Mood, manner, state of mind ; mood affirms tho 
act or state as real, ideal, contingent, or willed, or else merely assumes it in an ab- 
stract or modifying sense. Indicative, pointing out, declaring ; subjunctive, joined 
to; poten'tial, having power; imperative, commanding; infih'iiivi, left free. 
Subjunctive, joined to; because the clause in which this mood occurs, is always 
joined to another, or depends upon it for complete sense. Suppositin/t, what is 
merely in the mind. Contin'gency, that which depends on something else, tnat 
which may or may not take place. Conclusion ; a thought drawn from others, that 
generally ends the matter. 



VEBBS. 37 

"What -words often precede this mood, or indicate it ? 

If, though, that, lest, except, unless, provided, etc. 

"What does a verb in the subjunctive mood suggest, when it refers to present 
or past time ? 

That the contrary of what is supposed, or some- 
thing different, is the true state of the case. See 
p. 36. 

"What other mood does the subjunctive resemble in its form, and what one in 
its meaning ? 

In its form, the indicative ; but in meaning, the 
potential, with which it is also most frequently asso- 
ciated in sentences. See p. 36. 

What does the potential mood affirm of the subject ? 

The potential mood affirms merely the power, 
liberty, liability, necessity, will, duty, or a similar 
relation of the subject, in regard to the act or state. 

Ex. — G-od can destroy this world. Tou may play. They who would be 
happy, must be virtuous. Children should obey their teachers. 

How can this mood be known, or what words are used to express it ? 

May, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

What does the imperative mood express ? 

The imperative mood expresses command, ex- 
hortation, entreaty, or permission. 

Ex. — John, study your lessson. (Command.) Go where glory waits thee. 
(Exhortation.) Oh ! then remember me. (Entreaty.) Return to your friends. 
What is the subject of every verb in the imperative mood ? 

Thou, you, or ye, usually understood. 

Ex. — "Know thyself "=Know thou thyself. " My young friends, be pure 



Exercises. 

Tlie verb, and why ; then the mood, and why : — 

William is writing. The rosemary nods on the grave, and the 
lily lolls on the wave. He caught a fish. It will rain this even- 
ing. I may command, but you must obey. He could and should 
have assisted us, but he would not. I wish to go, but I can not. 

JW*ord,S Explained, — Potential, implying the power only ; expressing 
what causes the act, but not that the act is produced. Liability,' what may be. 
Neces'sity, what must be. Duty, what ought to be. Exhortation, advice and' per- 
suasion to do good. Entreaty, beseeching ; humble yet urgent request. We 
command inferiors, exhort equals, entreat superiors, and permit in compliance with 
the will of others. Expressed, put down in the book ; understood, not put down, 
but to be supplied by the mind. 



and cautious" a =»My young friends, be ye pure and cautious. A verb in this 
mood sometimes bas a subject of tbe 1st or 3d person ; as, " Seek we now some 
deeper sbade." " Lead he tbe way wbo knows the spot." 
How does tbe infinitive mood express tbe act or state ? 

The infinitive mood does not affirm the act or 
state. It comprises the infinitive and the participle.* 

Ex. — Be careful to avoid tbe danger. The clouds dispersing. See p. 28. 
Which of the moods can be used interrogatively ? 

The indicative and the potential. 

Ex. — Who is my friend? Must I endure all this? 
How are they made interrogative ? 

By placing the subject after the verb, or after some 
part of it. 

Ex. — "Thou art he;" " Art thou be ?" " Can you help us ?" 



c. Time may naturally be divided into present, past, and future; and we 
may consider an act or state as simply taking place in each of these periods, or 
as completed: thus, "I write, I have written ;" "I wrote, I had written;" "I 
shall write," " 1 shall have wn'^ew'— Present, present-perfect; past, past-perfect; 
future, future-perfect. Hence verbs have what grammarians call tenses. How, 
then, would you define tense ? 

Tense is the form and meaning of the verb to dis- 



tinguish time. 



Exercises. 



Do not value a gem by what it is set in. If William study, he 
will soon know his lesson. If wishes were horses, beggars would 
ride. Train up a child in the way he should go ; and when he is 
old, he will not depart from it. The violet soon will cease to 
smile, the whippoorwill to chant. May you be happy. O, that 
he were wiser ! If you are disappointed, blame not me. If you 
be disappointed, blame not me. This government will fall, if it 
lose the confidence of the people. This government would fall, 
if it lost the confidence of the people. This government would have 
fallen, had it lost the confidence of the people. Let us now turn to 
another part. Turn we now to another part. Somebody call my 
wife. (Imperative.) 

* The infinitive mood is tolerated, only as we tolerate a neuter gender. It implies the 
absence of all assertion rather than any particular mode of assertion. Prof. Gibbs, of Yale, 
says, "The infinitive mode so called is the crude form of the verb. It is the verb divested 
of all modality. It is no mode at all." In this book, we practically Ignore this mood; or, 
when we call a verb a participle or an infinitive, the mood is implied. And we include 
under the infinitive mood, participle* with infinitives, just as zoologists include under to* 
cat genus not merely cats, but also lions, tigers, leopards, etc 



VEEBS. 39 

There are six tenses ; the present, the past, the 
future, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the future-per- 
fect In stead of perfect and pluperfect the words 
present-perfect and past-perfect may also be used. 

What does the present ten3e express ? 

The present tense expresses present acts or states. 

Ex. — I am writing. It snows. You may commence. Let me see it. 

This tense is also used to express what is always so 
from the very nature or condition of things. 

Ex. — Heat melts ice. Traveling is expensive. People must die. 

Sometimes the present tense is used to express past or future events more vividly ; as, 
" The combat deepens. On, ye brave !" " The guard never surrenders: it dies /" Also in 
speaking of the dead, when judged by their existing works ; as, " Seneca moralizes well." 
How does the past tense express the act or state ? 

The past tense refers the act or state simply to 
past time. 

Ex. — Bonaparte was banished to St. Helena. She died this morning. I 
soon saw that he could not see. The ship arrived before day. 

This tense is usually called the imperfect tense, hut inappropriately. It may 
be well to call it the aorist or indefinite tense, in the subjunctive and the potential 
mood, whenever it does not denote past time. 

How does the future tense express the act or state ? 

The future tense refers the act or state simply to 
future time. 

Ex. — The cars will come this evening. Merit will be rewarded. 
How does the perfect tense express the act or state ? 

The perfect tense represents something as past, 
but still connected with present time. 

Ex. — This magnificent city has been built within one hundred years. I have 
just sold my horse. The mail may have arrived. This house appears to have 
been a church. I have often read Yirgil. (Subject still remaining.) Thus has 
it flowed for ages. (Act still remaining.) Cicero has written orations. (Object, 
or result, still remaining.) 

How does the pluperfect tense express the act or state ? 

The pluperfect tense represents something as 
finished or ended by a certain past time. 

Ex. — I had already sent my trunk to the river, when I received your letter. 
A fish had been on the hook. A fish might have been on the hook. 

Jf^ords Explained,— Tense, from the French temps, Latin tempus, time. 
Pe'riod, a going round, as a year ; a portion of time. A'-o-rist, from the Greek a, 
not, and oristos, marked out ; indefinite. Plu'perfect, from the Latin plus, more, 
and fectus, finished; that is, farther back in time than what is only now finished. 



40 VERBS. 

How does the future-perfect tense express tho act or stato ? 

The future -perfect tense represents something 
as finished or ended by a certain future time. 

Ex. — The flowers will have withered, when winter returns. 

The three perfect tenses are sometimes called the relative tenses, because they 
relate from one point of time to another; and the other three tenses, which havo 
not this relation, are called the absolute tenses. 

Every perfect tense, except sometimes a participle, must have what two parts ? 

Have, or some one of its variations, and the perfect 
participle of some verb. 

Ex. — Have written ; having written ; to have written ; may havo written ; 
has been writing; shall have written; should havo been writing; had written. 

How does the present, the past, or the future tense, sometimes express the act 
or state ? 

As something habitual or customary in present, 
past, or future time. 

Ex. — He chews tobacco. People go to church on Sunday. There would 
he spend his earnings. The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb. 

When the act or state is expressed as ideal rather than real, as in the subjunc- 
tive mood, and frequently in the potential, what may be observed of the tenses, in 
respect to the time of the event ? 

That they move forward, one tense or more, in time. 

Ex. — " If I am" — now ; " If I be" — hereafter. " If I was" — at any past 
time; "If I were" — now. "I had been there" — before a certain past time; 
" Had I been there" — at a certain past time. " I had paid you" — before a cer- 
tain past time ; " I might have paid you" — at a certain past time. " Such gov- 
ernments could not last, if they contained ever so much wisdom and virtue." — 
P. Henry. At any time. See second definition of present tense. 

The present and the perfect indicative are sometimes carried into future time, 
by the words when, as soon as, whoever, etc. ; as, "Wlien he comes home, send for 
me;" "When he has done the work, I will pay him." 

In most of the tenses, a verb maybe expressed in several different ways : as, 
u He strikes ;" " He does strike ;" " He is striking ;" " He is sfrw:k ;" M lie strik- 
eth" Grammarians usually distinguish these, by calling them, emphatically, the 
forms of the verb — better, the forms of the tenses. 

What is the common form ? 

The common form is the verb expressed in the 
most simple and ordinary manner. 

Ex. — He went home. Time flies. No man has ever been too honest. 

JWords Explaineil. — Future-perftct literally means future-finished. 
TTtibit'ual, what a person does often. Customary, what is done by many people. 
Me'al, merely in the mind. Progressive, from pro, forth, and gres'sive, stepping ; 
going forth or on. 



VERBS. il 

What is the emphatic form ? 

The emphatic form has do or did as a part of the 
verb, to give it greater force. 

Ex.' — I did say so. Keally, it does move. Do come to see me. 
Do and did, in negative propositions, do not express emphasis. 
"What is the progressive form ? 

The progressive form is be, or some variation of it, 
combined with the participle that ends in ing. 
This form denotes continuance of the act or state. 

Ex. — I wrote ; I was writing. He is drinking wine. [Drinks — habit.) 
What is the passive form ? 

The passive form is be, or some variation of it, 
combined with the perfect participle. 
This form is generally passive in sense. 

Ex. — The oak was shattered by lightning. The melancholy days are come. 
What is the ancient form, or solemn style ? 

The ancient form has the ending t, st, or est, for 
the second person singular ; and tli or eth, in stead of 
s or es, for the third person singular ; and generally 
uses thou or ye in stead of you. 

This form occurs often in Scriptural or poetic style. 

Ex. — Thou barVdst the dart. Adversity flattereth no man. Who chooseth 
me, must hazard all he hath. Ye are the salt of the earth. 

Doth is used for the auxiliary does, and doeth for the verb does. Bath and 
saith are contractions of haveth and say eth. 



d. When I say, "I am, thou art, he is ;" "I write, thou writest, he % 
you see that the verb varies with the person of its subject : and when I say, 
"He is, they are;" "He writes, they write f you see that the verb varies with 
the number of its subject. Hence the verb is said to have person and number ; 
that is, it is so expressed as to indicate the person and number of its subject, and 



Exercises. 

The verb, and why ; then the form, and why : — 

Twilight is weeping o'er the pensive rose. It fell instantly. 
It does amaze me. Ye know not what ye say. Learning taketh 
away the barbarity of men's minds. The apples are gathered and 
sold. Our chains are forging. The improved rifles are being 
introduced into the army. Thou art the man. 

The tenses being more difficult, the exercises on them aro deferred till the Conjugation 
has been learned. 



42 VEBBS. 

thereby the subject itself. ^Vhat, then, is meant bj the person and number of a 
verb? 

The person and number of a verb are its form 
as being suitable to the person and number of its 
subject. 

The term, " a form of the verb" signifies, in its widest sense, any mode of expressing it. 
When is a verb singular ? and when plural t 

It is singular, when its form is proper for predi- 
cating of a singular subject ; and plural, when proper 
for predicating of a plural subject. 

Ex. — The night was serene, and all the stars were shining. 
Define singular subjects and plural subjects. 

A singular subject denotes one object, or more ob- 
jects taken singly or separately ; a plural subject de- 
notes more than one, but not taken as one single thing. 

Ex. — Si ngular : " The toy \ is studious ;" " Every tree | is known by its 
fruit;" "John, James, or Joseph, | is studying;" "Neither John, James, nor 
Joseph, | is studying;" " The crowd | was large." Plural: " The boys | are 
studious;" "John, James, and Joseph, | are studious;" " The people | are fickle." 

Singular subject : Singular nominative ; singular nominatives, joined 
by or or nor ; singular nominative or nominatives, modified by each, every, either, 
neither, many a, or no ; singular nominatives, joined by and, but denoting only 
one object ; collective noun, presenting all the objects as one thing. 

Plural subject : Plural nominative ; singular nominatives, joined by 
and; collective noun, presenting the objects individually. 

In correct discourse, of what person and number is the verb always said to be ? 

Of the same as its subject or nominative. 

Ex — " I am." Here am is said to be of the first person and singular num- 
ber, because its subject, 1, is of this person and number. 

Exercises. 

The verb, and why ; then of tohat person and number, to agree with .• — 

I study. We write. He stutters. Grass grows. They 
were. You might improve. Thou art he. It is. It is I. It 
is they. Is it he? Thou hast been. The wind has risen. 
Cows are lowing. The cricket chirps. Sing, heavenly Muse. 
Seek we the shade. I myself saw him. The general himself was 
slain. The public are respectfully invited. The country was 
harassed by civil war. Many a man has been ruined by specula- 
tion. Either your horse or mine is gone. Both your horse and 
mine are gone. Neither the woman nor her child was hurt. 
Thou or I am to blame. He, as well as I, is to blame. 



YBRBS. 4S 

How is the verb varied, to express person and number ? 

The third person singular of the present indicative 
is generally expressed, like the plural of nouns, by 
adding s or es. In most other cases, the verb itself 
remains unchanged. 

Ex. — He plans ; he marches ; he tarries. I write ; we write ; they write. 

PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 

What is a participle ? What is an infinitive ? See p. 28. 

Participles and infinitives perform three offices in language : they are par- 
ticiples and infinitives proper ; they combine with the auxiliaries to make most 
parts of the verb ; they become words of other parts of speech. 

How many and what participles are there, and how many and what infinitives ? 

Two of each, — the present and the perfeetj and 
also a third participle, the compound. 

How does the present participle represent the act or state ? 

The present participle represents the act or state 
as present and continuing at the time referred to. 

Ex. — We saw the moon rising. Who goes borrowing, goes sorrowing. 
How does the present infinitive represent the act or state ? 

The present infinitive represents the act or state as 
present, but more often as future, at the time referred to. 

Ex. — He seems to study. Man never is, but always to be, blest. I in- 
tended to say less ; for I was to speak again. 

How does the -perfect participle or infinitive represent the act or state ? 

The perfect participle or infinitive represents the 
act or state as past or ended at the time referred to. 

Ex. — A fox, caught in a trap. The river appears to have risen. 

The perfect participle is sometimes present in sense; as, " He lives loved by 
all." The present infinitive sometimes denotes simply the act or state ; and th? 
perfect infinitive, the completed act or state. 

What is a compound participle? 

A compound participle consists of two or more 
participles ; and it is in sense generally a perfect, but 
sometimes a present, participle. 

Ex. — Having purchased a farm, he retired to the country. Tho terms being 
settled, he produced the cash. He, having been previously engaged, and being 
then engaged, in making coast surveys, was appointed. 



44 VERBS. 

How is the participle sometimes used ? 

As an adjective, and then called a participial ad- 
jective. 

Define a participial adjective. 

A participial adjective ascribes the act or state to 
its subject as a quality. 

Ex. — "A leaping and murmuring rivulet." "Written laws." A participial 
adjective usually stands before the noun which it qualifies. A word is a participle 
or participial adjective, only when it is derived directly from a verb of the samo 
meaning. Writing and written are formed from the verb write : but unknown, 
situated, enterprising, are merely adjectives ; for there is no such verb as unknow, 
situate, or enterprise. 

Participles and infinitives are frequently used as what other parts of speech ? 

As nouns, and then often called verbal nouns. 

When should a participle or an infinitive be considered a noun ? 

When it evidently takes the place, and is used in 
the sense, of a noun. 

Ex. — " To live without being annoyed, is pleasant." "What is pleasant? with- 
out what ? — Life without annoyance is pleasant. " Successful studying requires 
exertion." " To have learned so beautiful an art, will be ever a pleasure to me." 
" He made no secret of my having written the review." — Irving. " His being there, 
was the ground of suspicion." " Boys like to play." (Boys like apples.^ " To 
love is to obey." 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

No complete verb in our language can express all its properties, or bo ex- 
pressed in all its forms, without the aid of certain other little verbs. Thus, to 
express "strike" in future time, we say, " shall or ivill strike;" in the potential 
mood, "may, can, must, might, could, would, or should strike;" in the passive 
voice, "is struck, ivas struck, being struck," etc. These little helping verbs aro 
therefore called auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary means helping. 

How, then, would you define an auxiliary verb ? 

An auxiliary verb helps another verb to express 
its meaning in a certain manner or time. 

"Which are the auxiliary verbs ? 

Be, and all its variations ; do, did ; can, could] have, 
had: may, might; must j shall, should; will, would. 

JWords Explained, — Verbal, formed from a verb, like a verb. Pos- 
sibility, what can be. Probability, what is likely to be. Reasonableness, the 
state of being proper. Injunction, request, command. Gnnpukion, force. Ad- 
ap-ta'-tion, fitness, suitableness. Pre'jix ; some letter or letters put to the begin- 
ning of a word, to vary its meaning. ^Exemplified, »hown by examples. 



VERBS. 45 

For what are the auxiliaries le and its variations used ? 

They are used to express the verb progressively or 
passively. 

Ex. — The farmer is ploughing his field. The field is ploughed. 
For what are the auxiliaries do and did used ? 

They are used to express the verb with emphasis, 
and often negatively or interrogatively. 

Ex. — I do believe it. He did say so. He did not go. Did you go t 
"What do can and could imply ? 

Power or ability. 

Ex. — I can lift the stone. I can learn the lesson. I could not give my 
consent. 

What do have and had imply, and for what are they used ? 

They imply possession, and are used to express the 
act or state as finished or ended at the time referred to. 

Ex. — I have gathered the plums which the wind had blown down. 
What meaning is conveyed by inay and might ? 

Permission, possibility, or probability; sometimes 
reasonableness. 

Ex. — You may go to play. But remember the horse may die. It may rain 
this evening. But the question might be asked, Is the tax legal ? 
What do must, shall, and should denote ? 

Duty or injunction : but shall, more frequently 
compulsion ; and must, generally necessity. 

Ex. — We should care for others. Thou shalt not swear. He shall go. 
You must not look for me before next week. Pupils must obey. 
What do will and would denote ? 

Willingness, adaptation, or tendency. 

Ex. — He would pay if he could. This will do. Weeds will grow where 
there is no cultivation. Roses will fade. 

Generally speaking, §5aaH foretells in the first person, and threatens in the 
second and third persons ; will promises or consents in the first person, and 
foretells in the second and third persons. In dependent or interrogative proposi- 
tions, these words often reverse or vary their meanings. 

For what purpose are all the auxiliaries more or less used ? 

To express the verb interrogatively. For this pur- 
pose, they are placed before the nominative. 

Ex — "You are wounded;" " Are you wounded ?" "Does he know you?" 
3 



46 



CONJUGATION AXD SYNOPSIS. 



What is it, to conjugate a verb ? 

To conjugate a verb is to show, in a regular way, 
how some or all of its parts are correctly expressed. 

Ex. — Be and write in the present tense, indicative mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. I am, 1. We are, 

Second Person. You are, 2. You are. 

Third Person. He, she, or it, is ; 3. They are. 

1. I write, 1. We write, 

2. You write, 2. You write, 

3. He or she writes ; 3. They write. 
What is it, to give the synopsis of a verb ? 

To give the synopsis of a verb, is to express it cor- 
rectly, in a single person and number, or in a partic- 
ular form, through some or all of its moods and tenses. 

Ex — Synopsis of write, with /, through the indicative mood : Present, I 
write ; past, I wrote ; future, / shall or ivill write : perfect, / have written ; plu* 
perfect, I had written ; future-perfect, 1 shall or will have written. 

Most parts of the verb consist of auxiliaries combined with participles and 
infinitives. To, tbe sign of the infinitive, is omitted when this is combined with 
auxiliaries ; it is also generally omitted after bid, make, need, hear, \ let, see, feel, 
and dare, in the active voice, because these verbs have acquired to some extent 
the meaning of auxiliaries. . From the present, all the parts of a regular 
verb can be easily formed; wheu the verb is irregular, the three principal parts 
must be given. 

Exercises. 

The verb, and why ; then the auxiliary, vjhat it implies, and what mood and 
tense it expresses : — 

John can read. Mary may write. Die I must He does 
improve rapidly. Do you know him ? The sun has risen. The 
thief had left the tavern when his pursuers came. I have a knife, 
and it is sharp. You shall obey me. Ye will not come that ye 
may have life. I will come if I can. He would not remain, if he 
were sent. Whoever would desert, should be hanged. Did not 
you go too ? May God ever protect the right. 

Words Explained.— Conjugation, from the Latin con, together, and 
jugum, a yoke ; a yoking-together. Conjugation, signified, in old times, "the joining 
of various endings and prefixes to the chief parts of verbs called the roots ; but, 
with us, the word rather signifies the joining of the various forms of the verb to 
their nominatives. Synop'si* means a look at the whole ; and as we are apt to see 
only the ohief or most striking parts, by looking at all at once, the word has come 
to signify the chief parts, or the outline, of the whole of a thing. Par'adigm; r 
display of the variations of a word, or of a class of words. 



47 



Formation of the Tenses. 



Present participle : Present + i n 9 / *•©•> the present combined with the en&ivginff. 

Perfect participle: Present + ed; or,irregular and given. See pp. 29-33. 

Compound participle : Being, having, or having been + perfect participle. 

Present infinitive : To + present. 

Perfect infinitive : To have + perfect participle. 

Present indicative : Present ; or do + present infinitive. 

Past indicative : Present + eeZ / or, did + present infinitive ; or, irregular 

Puture indicative : Shall or will + present infinitive, [and given. See pp. 29-33. 

Perfect indicative : Have + perfect participle. 

Pluperfect indicative : Had + perfect participle. 

Puture-perfect indicative : Shall or will + perfect infinitive. 

Present subjunctive : Same as present indicative ; but be in stead of am. 

Past subjunctive : Same as past indicative ; but were in stead of was. 

Pluperfect subjunctive : Same as pluperfect indicative. 

Present potential : May, can, or must + present infinitive. 

Past potential : Might, could, would, or should + present infinitive. 

Perfect potential : May, can, or must + perfect infinitive. 

Pluperfect potential : Might, could, would, or should + perfect infinitive. 

Present imperative : Same as present indicative. 

Progressive Form : Corresponding tense of the verb be + present participle. 

Passive Form : Corresponding tense of the verb be + perfect participle. 

To express the progressive passive sense, the ordinary progressive form is 
sometimes used, when the subject can not be considered the doer, and when the 
common passive verb would denote completion ; as, " The fortress was building.'' 1 
• — Irving. Being is sometimes put into the common passive verb, for the same 
purpose; as, "The men are being enrolled." — Newspaper. 

CONJUGATION EXEMPLIFIED. 

I have here presented to you the very irregular verb be, the regular verb 
row, and the irregular verb take, in all the forms in which they can be expressed. 
Like them, or by their means, may all other verbs be expressed in all their 
forms ; and for I, you, he, she, it, we, you, and they, can be used any other nom- 
inatives having the same person and number, that is, all nominatives whatsoever ; 
so that the following conjugation is sufficient to teach all the correct forms of all 
the verbs, for all the propositions that have been spoken or written, and all that 
can be spoken or written, in the English language. 

Be. Row. Take. 





Principal Parts. 




Present. 


Preterit or Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


Be or am, 


was, 


been. 


Row, 


rowed, 


rowed. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 



48 



INDICATIVE 









ABSOLUTE 








Present 


, 




Singular. 




1 


First Person. 


Second Person. 


Third Person. 




I 


You 


He, She, or It, 




am, 


are, 


is; 


a 


row, 


row, 


row s ; 


E 


do row, 


do row, 


do es row ; 


Pr. 


am rowing, 


are rowing, 


is rowing ; 


P. 


am rowed, 


are rowed, 


is rowed ; 


a 


take, 


take, 


take s ; 


K 


do take, 


do take, 


do es take ; 


Pr. 


am tak ing, 


are taking, 


is taking ; 


P. 


am tak en, 


are taken, 


is taken ; 






Singular. 


Past 




I 


You 


He 




was, 


were, 


was ; 


a 


row ed, 


rowed, 


rowed ; 


E 


did row, 


did row, 


did row ; 


Pr. 


icas row ing, 


were rowing, 


was rowing; 


P. 


icas row ed, 


were rowed, 


was rowed ; 


C. 


took, 


took, 


took; 


E 


did take, 


did take, 


did take ; 


Pr. 


was tak ing, 


were taking, 


was taking ; 


P. 


teas taken, 


icere taken, 
Singular. 


was taken ; 

Future 




I 


You 

shall or will — 


He 




be, 


be, 


be ; 


C. 


row, 


row, 


row ; 


Pr. 


be row ing, 


be rowing, 


be rowing; 


P. 


be row ed, 


be rowed, 


be rowed ; 


a 


take, 


take, 


take ; 


Pr. 


be tak ing, 


be taking, 


be taking ; 


P. 


be tak en, 


be taken, 


be taken ; 



* Recite the following paradigm across both pages; and the synopsis with ihou, down the 
page. The entire paradigm can also be recited down the page, as well as across; thus, First 
person singular, com. form, Irovo ; emphatic form, I do row, etc. The parts in Italics show 
what anifliary matter must be put to the root of the verb, or wbat change must be made in 



*9 



MOOD.' 






TENSES. 






Tense, 


Plural. 




First Person. 


Second Person. 


Third Person. 


We 


You 


They 


are, 


are, 


are. 


row, 


row, 


row.f 


do row, 


do row, 


do row. 


are rowing, 
are rowed, 


are rowing, 
are rowed, 


are rowing, 
are rowed. 


take, 


take, 


take. 


do take, 


do take, 


do take. 


are taking, 
are taken, 


are taking, 
are taken, 


are taking, 
are taken. 


Tense. 


Plural. 


(Imperfect.) 


We 


You 


They 


were, 


were, 


were. 


rowed, 


rowed, 


rowed. 


did row, 


did row, 


did row. 


were rowing, 
were rowed, 


were rowing, 
were rowed, 


were rowing, 
were rowed. 


took, 


took, 


took. 


did take, 


did take, 


did take. 


were taking, 
were taken, 


were taking, 
were taken, 


were taking, 
were taken. 


Tense. 


Plara.. 


(First-Future.) ' 


We 


You 

shall or will. 


They 


be, 


be, 


be. 


row, 


row, 


row. 


be rowing, 
be rowed, 


be rowing, 
be rowed, 


be rowing, 
be rowed. 


take, 


take, 


take. 


be taking, 
be taken, 


be taking, 
be taken, 


be taking, 
be taken. 



it, to express the mood, tense, form, person, and number. <?. stands tarJCfommon Form ; JR., 
for Emphatic Form; Fr., for Progressive Form; and P., for Passive Form. 

t Observe that the verb, like the nouns and pronouns in their declension, remains some- 
times unchanged, is sometimes partly changed, and is sometimes wholly changed, to express 
its different properties; and that it sometimes calls in the help of the auxiliary verbs. 



First Person. 

I 

have — 

been, 
C. row ed, 
Pr. been row ing, 
P. been row ed, 

C. tak en, 

Pr. been tak ing, 

P. been tak en, 



Singular, 
Second Person. 

You 

have — 

been, 
rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 

taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 



RELATIVE 

Perfect , k 

Third Person. 

He 

has — * 

been ; 
rowed ; 
been rowing ; 
been rowed • 

taken ; 
been taking ; 
been taken ; 



been, 

C. row ed, 

Pr. been row ing, 

P. been row ed, 

C. tak en, 

Pr. been tak ing, 

P. been takcw, 



Singular. 

You 

had — 
been, 

rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 

taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 



Pluperfect 

He 

been ; 
rowed ; 
been rowing ; 
been rowed ; 

taken ; 
been taking ; 
been taken ; 



Future-Perfect 



been, 

C. » row ed, 

Pr. been vowing, 

P. been rowed, 

C. tak en, 

Pr. been taking, 

P. been tak en, 



Singular. 

You 

shall or will have — 

been, 

rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 

taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 



He 

been; 

rowed ; 
been rowing ; 
been rowed ; 

taken ; 
been taking; 
been taken \ 



51 



Tenses. 






Tense. 


Plural. 


(Present-Perfect.) 


First Person. 


Second Person. 


Third Person. 


We 


You 


They 


have — 


have — 


have — 


been, 


been, 


been. 


rowed, 


rowed, 


rowed. 


been rowing, 
been rowed, 


been rowing, 
been rowed, 


been rowing, 
been rowed. 


taken, 


taken, 


taken. 


been taking, 
been taken, 


been taking, 
been taken, 


been taking, 
been taken. 


Tense, 


Plural 


(Past-Perfect.) 


We 


You 

had — 


They 


been, 


been, 


been. 


rowed, 


rowed, 


rowed. 


been rowing, 
been rowed, 


been rowing, 
been rowed, 


been rowing, 
been rowed. 


taken, 


taken, 


taken. 


been taking, 
been taken, 


been taking, 
been taken, 


been taking, 
been taken. 


Tense. 


Plural. 


(Second-Future.) 


We 


You 

shall or will have — 


They 


been, 


been, 


been. 


rowed, 


rowed, 


rowed. 


been rowing, 
been rowed, 


been rowing, 
been rowed, 


been rowing, 
been rowed. 


taken, 


taken, 


taken. 


been taking, 
been taken, 


been taking, 
been taken, 


been taking, 
been taken. 



SUBJUNCTIVE 







Singular. 


Present 




First Person. 


Second Person. 


Tliird Person. 




If I 


If you 


If he 




be, 


be, 


be; 


a 

E. 


row, 
do row, 


row, 
do row, 


row ; 
do row ; 


Pr. 
P. 


be row ing, 
be row ed, 


oe rowing, 
be rowed, 


be rowing; 
be rowed ; 


a 

K 
Pr. 
P. 


take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken, 


take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken, 


take; 
do take ; 
be taking ; 
be taken ; 






Singular. 


Past 




If I 


If you 


If he 




were, 


were, 


were ; 


a 


row ed, 
did row, 


rowed, 
did row, 


rowed ; 
did row; 


Pr. 


were row ing, 


were rowing, 


were rowing ; 


P. 


were rowed, 


were rowed, 


were rowed; 


a 

K 
Pr. 
P. 


took, 
did take, 
were tak ing, 
icere take;?, 


took, 
did take, 
were taking, 
were taken, 


took ; 
did take ; 
were taking ; 
were taken ; 






Singular. 


Pluperfect 




If I 


If you 
had — 


If he 




been, 


been, 


been ; 


a 

Pr. 
P. 


row ed) 
been row big, 
been rowed, 


rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 


rowed ; 
been rowing; 
been rowed ; 


a 

Pr. 
P. 


take?i, 
been taking, 
been taken, 


taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 


taken ; 
been taking ; 
been taken ; 



We can also say, "Were I," u Were yon," "Were he," etc., 
"Had I been," "Had you been," etc., "Be it ever so fine, I 



53 



MOOD. 






Tense. 


Plural. 




First Person. 


Second Person. 


Third Person. 


If we 


If you 


If they 


be, 


be, 


be. 


row, 
do row, 
be rowing, 
be rowed, 


row, 
do row, 
be rowing, 
be rowed, 


row. 
do row. 
be rowing, 
be rowed. 


take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken, 


take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken, 


take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken. 


Tense. 


Plural. 


(Imperfect.) 


If we 


If you 


If they 


were, 


were, 


were. 


rowed, 
did row, 
were rowing, 
were rowed, 


rowed, 
did row, 
were rowing, 
were rowed, 


rowed, 
did row. 
were rowing, 
were rowed. 


took, 
did take, 
were taking, 
were taken, 


took, 
did take, 
were taking,, 
were taken, 


took, 
did take, 
were taking, 
were taken. 


Tense. 


P lurak 


(Past-Perfect.) 


If we 

been, 


If you 

had — 

been, 


If they 
been. 


rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 


rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 


rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed. 


taken, 

been taking,, 
been taken, 


taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 


taken. 

been taking, 
been taken. 


would not buy it ;" for, "If I were," 
bad been," "Though it be ever so fine, I 
3* 


"If you were," "If! 

v;o»' l'd. not buy it." 



POTENTIAL 







Singular. 


Present 




First Person. 


Second Person. 


Third Person. 




I 


You 


He 




be, 


may, can, or must — 
be, 


be ; 


a 

Pr. 
P. 


row, 

he row ing, 

he rowed, 


row, 

be rowing, 

be rowed, 


row; 

be rowing; 

be rowed ; 


C. 

Pr. 

P. 


take, 

he taki?ig, 

he taken. 


take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 


take ; 

be taking ; 

be taken ; 






Singular. 


Past 



be, 



You He 

might, could, would, or should — 

be, be ; 



row, row, row ; 

he row ing, be rowing, - be rowing ; 

he row ed, be rowed, be rowed ; 

take, take, take ; 

he tak ing, be taking, be taking ; 

he tdken, be taken, be taken ; 



Perfect 



Singular. 

I You He 

may, can, or must have — 

been, been, been ; 

C. row ed, rowed, rowed ; 

Pr. heen row ing, been rowing, been rowing ; 

P. heen row ed, been rowed, been rowed ; 

C. tak en, taken, taken ; 

Pr. heen taking, been taking, been taking; 

P. been tak en, been taken, been taken ; 

Does the subjunctive mood vary, in its forms, through the different persons 
and numbers ? 



55 



MOOD. 






Tense, 


Plural. 




First Person. 


Second Person. 


Third Person. 


We 


You 

may, can, or must — 


They 


be, 


be, 


be. 


row, 


row, 


row. 


be rowing, 
be rowed, 


be rowing, 
be rowed, 


be rowing, 
be rowed. 


take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 


take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 


take. 

be taking. 

be taken. 


Tense. 




(Imperfect.) 



Plural. 

We You They 

might, could, would, or should — 
be, be, be. 



row, 


row, 


row. 


be rowing, 
be rowed, 


be rowing, 
be rowed, 


be rowing, 
be rowed. 


take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 


take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 


take. 

be taking. 

be taken. 


Tense. 


Plural. 


(Present-Perfect.) 


We 


You 


They 




may, can, or must have 




been, 


been, 


been. 


rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 


rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 


rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed. 


taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 


taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 


taken. 

been taking, 
been taken. 


Can you show how some of the forms of the subjunctive mood differ from the 
corresponding forms of the indicative mood ? 



66 







Singular. 




Pluperfect 




First Person. 


Second Person. 




Third Person. 




I 


You 




He 




might, 


coidd, would, or should have — 




been, 


been, 




been ; 


a 

Pr. 
P. 


row ed, 

been row i?ig, 

been row ed, 


rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 




rowed ; 
been rowing; 
been rowed ; 


a 

Pr. 
P. 


tak en, 
been tak big, 
been taken, 


taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 




taken ; 
been taking ; 
been taken; 




IMPERATIVE 


MOOD. 






Present Tense. 





Singular. 
C. Be, or be thou ; 
*E. Do be, or do thou be ; 
C. Row, or row thou ; 
E. Do row, or do thou row; 
Pr. Be rowing, or be thou rowing; 
P. Be rowed, or be thou rowed; 
C. Take, or take thou; 
E. Do take, or do thou take ; 
Pr. Be taking, or be thou taking ; 
P. Be taken, or be thou taken ; 



Plural. 

be, or be ye. 

do be, or do ye be. 

row, or row ye. 

do row, or do ye row. 

be rowing, or be ye rowing. 

be rowed, or be ye rowed. 

take, or take ye. 

do take, or do ye take. 

be taking, or be ye taking. 

be taken, or be ye taken. 



Exercises. 

The verb, and why ; then the tense, and why : — 

The tree blossoms, has blossomed ; blossomed, had blossomed ; 
will blossom, will have blossomed; may blossom, might blossom. 

The moonlight is glimmering on the water. Hushed now are 
the whirlwinds that ruffled the deep. The storm had ceased before 
we reached a shelter. The storm ceased before we reached a shel- 
ter. He who is a. stranger to industry, may possess, but he can not 
enjoy. Men must be taught as if you taught them not How 
bright yon pearly clouds reposing lie ! He sank exhausted on the 

How many and what tenses has the indicative mood? — the subjunctive? — the 
potential ? — the imperative? AVhat participles are there ? — what infinitive* ? 

In what mood and tense do you find dot — did? — have? — had? — shall or will? 
— shall or will have? — may, can, or must? — may, can, or must have?— might, could* 
would, or should ? — might, could, would, or should have t 



Tense. 




Plural, 




(Past-Peefect.) 


First Person. 

We 


Second Person. 

You 


Third Persa 
They 


been, 


mighty 


could, would, or 
been, 


should have — 
been. 


rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 




rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed, 




rowed, 
been rowing, 
been rowed. 


taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 




taken, 

been taking, 
been taken, 




taken. 

been taking, 
been taken. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Infinitive. Perfect Infinitive. 

To be. To have been. 

To row. To have rowed. 

To be rowing. To have been rowing. 



a 

Pr. 

p. 

c. 

Pr. 
P. 



To be rowed. To have been rowed. 

To take. To have taken. 

To be taking. To have been taking. 

To be taken. To have been taken. 

Present Participle. Compound Participle. 

Being. Neuter. Having been. 

Rowing. Active, Having rowed. 

Taking. Passive. Being rowed. 

Perfect Participle. Passive ' Havin S been rowed - 

Been. Active. Having taken. 

Rowed. Passive. Being taken. 

Taken. Passivs. Having been taken. 



Exercises. 

bloody field. It would have pleased me to have heard from you. 
Strike ! for the green graves of your sires. I may have made some 
mistakes. I had heard that the spirit of discontent was very prev- 
alent here ; but with pleasure I find that I have been grossly mis- 
informed. Had the whole Turkish empire risen in opposition, it 
could not, at that moment, have deterred them. Your character 
will have been formed at the age of twenty. She seems to study. 
He is supposed to have written the book. As soon as I have 
learned my lesson, I will play with you. 



58 



ANCIENT FORM, OR SOLEMN STYLE.— THOU. 







INDICATIVE MOOD. 






Present. 


Past. 


Future. Perfect. 


Pluperfect. Future-Perfect 




Thou 


Thou 


Thou Thou 


Tnou 


Thou 






shal t or wil t — hast — 


hadst — shalt or wilt have-~ 




art; 


was i or wer* 


; be ; been ; 


been ; 


been; 


a 


row est, 


row edst, 


row, row ed, 


rowed, 


row ed, 


K 


dost row, 


didst row, 








Pr 


. axt 


wast 


be been 


been 


been 




rowing, 


row ing, 


rowing, rowing, 


rowing, 


row ing, 


P. 


art rowed; 


wast rowed; 


be rowed; been row ed ; 


been row ed ; 


been rowed; 


a 


takest, 


tookst, 


take, taken, 


taken, 


taken, 


K 


dost take, 


didst take, 








Pr. 


, art taking, 


wast taking, 


be taking, been taking, 


been taking, 


been taking, 


P. 


art taken. 


wast taken. 


be taken, been taken. 


been taken. 


been taken. 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 






Present. 


Past. 


Pluperfect. 




If thou 


If thou 


If thou 










hadst- 






be; 




wer t or were ; 


been ; 






C. row, 




row ed, 


rowed 


r 




E. do row, 


did row, or didst row, 








Pr. be rovring, 


wert rowing, 


been row ing, 




P. be row ed ; 


wer t row ed ; 


been row ed • 




C. take 




took, 


taken, 






K do take, 


did take, or didst take, 








Pr. be taking, 


wert taking, 


been taking, 




P. be taken. 


wert taken. 


been taken. 



"We can also say, " Wert thou," "Wert thou rowed," "Hadst thou been," "Hadst 
thou rowed;" for, "If thou wert" "If thou hadst been," etc. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Present. 

Thou 
may si, canst, 
or must — 
be; 
0. row, 
Pr. be row ing, 
P. be rowed; 
C. take, 
Pr. be taking, 
P. be taken. 



Past. 
Thou 
might st, could st, 
toouldst, or should si — 
be; 
row, 

be rowing, 
be rowed ; 
take, 

be taking, 
be taken. 



Perfect. 

Thou 
mayst, canst, 
or must have — 

been ; 

row ed, 

been rowing, 

been row ed ; 

taken, 

beon taking, 

been taken. 



Pluperfect. 
Thou 
mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
or sfiouldst have — 
been ; 
row ed, 
been row ing t 
been row ed ; 
taken, 

been taking, 
been taken. 



59 



6. ADVERBS. 

If I say, " He reasons correctly, speaks fluently, and persuades earnestly ;" 
"Walk up, walk down, walk in;" " Tery tall, horribly ugly, surprisingly abrupt, 
wore ingenious, most eloquent, very powerfully, quite fast ;" you see that the 
slanting words tell how, when, where, or to what degree, a thing is done ; also 
how or in what degree a quality or property exists ; and being most generally 
applied or added to verbs, these words are called adverbs. What, then, is an adverb ? 

An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. See above. 

Some entire phrases — as, long ago, in vain, to and fro, by and by, the more, the 
less, sooner or later — are generally used as adverbs, and called adverbial phrases, 
or simply adverbs. Adverbs, indeed, are but shorter expressions for phrases or 
clauses. Gracefully— in a graceful manner ; never=at no time ; occasionally— as 
occasion requires. 

Do adverbs always strictly modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs only? 

An adverb sometimes relates to a phrase or propo- 
sition, and sometimes it modifies a word with reference 
to a substantive or phrase. 

Ex. — " He sailed nearly | round the world." " He was so young, so gen- 
erous, so | every thing that we are apt to like in a young man." — Irving. "'Twas 
better so to close, than longer wait to part entirely foes" — Byron. "None 



Exercises. 

Give, in the order of the conjugation, the participles, then the infi 

Move, rise, spring, degrade, drown, invigorate, overwhelm, bleed. 

Change into the other tenses of the same mood : — 

I write, I may write, If I write, If I be writing, To write. 

Conjugate fully the verbs rule, permit, carry, strike, see. 

The verb; regular or irregular; transitive or intransitive; mood, tense, and 
form ; person and number. — and why : — 

He is reading law. We have slept. She died. Were we 
surpassed. You had sent him. Take care, lest you lose it. My 
time might have been improved better. The corn was ripening. 

Conjugate each of the following verbs, beginning with the first person singular, and 
stopping with the subject : — The boy learns. (Thus : Singular, 1st person, 1 learn ; 
2d person, You learn ; 3d person, He, or the boy, learns.) The leaves are falling. 
Flowers must fade. Jane reads. Jane and Eliza read. Jane or Eliza reads. 

Tell of what mood and tense, then conjugate throughout the tense, beginning with 
the first person singular : — I imagine. He suffered. We have lost it. I had been 
ploughing. I will visit. Were I. Had I been. If he were. Were I invited. 
Had "I been invited. If I be invited. They shall have written. I lay. We read. 
It may pass. You should have come. We may have been robbed. I was speak- 
ing. It is rising. You might be preparing:. Had you been studying. Do you hope? 
Did she smile? Ifldofail. If thou rely. Thou art. Art thou? He forgiveth. 
Dost thou not forgive ? It must have happened. They are gone. Thou art going. 

Predicate each of the following verbs correctly of thou ; then of he, and of they : 
— Am, was, have been, would have been, are deceived, had been, do say, did 
maintain, gave, touched, cast, amass, recommend, be discouraged, shall have been, 
will pardon, may have been rejoicing, was elected, should have been elected. 



60 ADVERBS. 

are perfect, no, not one." (Ne, like an adverb of emphasis, strengthens the 
negative proposition.) "But chiefly Thou, O Spirit — instruct me." — Milton. 
"John only | bought the horse." "Can not you go?'' differs from "Can you 
not go?" "Hannibal sailed for Cadiz; and, on his arrival \ there, the popula- 
tion came out to greet him." (When he had arrived there.) There seems to 
modify the verb lurking in the noun. " The fame | hereof went abroad." — 
Bible. (The fame of this.) "From stars | above to flowers \ below. From 
yonder stars to these flowers.) Adjuncts=adjectives or adverbs, and can there- 
fore be modified by adverbs. Predicates and participial or infinitive phrases 
resemble verbs, and can be modified in the same way. "When the adverb, as in 
the last three examples, has the sense of an adjectivo adjunct, it is probably best 
to parse it as an adjective. 

From what are most adverbs derived ? 

From adjectives, by adding ly. 

Ex. — Bad, badly; careful, carefully; merry, merrily. 

How can you tell, in doubtful cases, whether the adjective or the adverb 
should be used ? 

To express manner or describe the act, the adverb 
should be used; to describe the object, the adjective. 

Ex. — " Things look favorable this morning." (Are favorable.) " He looks \ 
skillfully at the moon, through his telescope." " We arrived safe." (We were safe, 
when we arrived.) When the verb can be changed to the neuter verb be or 
become, the adjective is required. 

If adverbs describe or limit as well as adjectives, can they also be compared ? 

Adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison ; but 
a smaller proportion of adverbs can be compared, and 
they are more frequently compared by more and most. 

Ex. — Thus, we can say, "Slow, slower, slowest; lively, livelier, liveliest;" but 
we must say, " So, more so, most so ; wisely, more wisely, most wisely" 
What do most adverbs express ? 

Manner, Place, Time, or Degree. 

Ex. — Thus, well, merrily, gayly ; here, there ; now, then ; very, more, most 

List of Adverbs. 

Since it is not unfrequently difficult to determine whether a given word is an 
adverb or not, or to what class of adverbs it should be referred, a large catalogue 
is given below, which should be carefully and thoroughly studied. The classifi- 
cation, too, is more minute than it usually is ; because it is supposed that the 
nature and various powers of the adverbs can be better learned by this means. 

Manner, Mode, or Quality. How ? 

So, thus, well, ill, how, wisely, foolishly, justly, somehow, anyhow, however, 
howsoever, otherwise, else, likewise, like, alike, as, extempore, headlong, length- 
wise, across, aslant, astride, adrift, amain, apace, apart, asunder, amiss, anew, 
fast, together, separately, aloud, accordingly, agreeably, necessarily, in vain, in 
brief, at once, in short, foot by foot, so so, so and so, helter-skelter, hurry-skurry, 
namely, suddenly, feelingly, surprisingly, trippingly, lovingly, hurriedly, mourn- 
fully, proportionally, exactly, heavily, lightly ; and many others ending with Zy, 
and formed from adjectives or present participles. 



61 



Place. Where? Whence? Whither? 



Of place absolute : Here, there, yonder, where, everywhere, somewhere, uni- 
versally, nowhere, wherever, anywhere, herein, therein, wherein, hereabouts, 
thereabouts, whereabouts, hereabout, thereabout, abed, aground, on high, all over, 
here and there. 

Of place reckoned fkom some point: Whence, hence, thence, elsewhere, away, 
far, afar, far off, out, remotely, abroad, above, forth, below, ahead, aloof, outwards, 
about, around, beneath, before, behind, over, under, within, without, from within, 
from without. 

Of place reckoned to some point : Whither, thither, hither, in, up, down, up- 
wards, downwards, forwards, hitherward, homeward, aside, ashore, afield, aloft, 
aboard, aground, nigh. — The forms upward, downward, backward, etc., are also 
used as adverbs. 

Of order : Firstly, secondly, thirdly, etc., next, lastly, finally, at last, in fine. 

Time. When? Sow long? Sow often? Sow soon? Sow 
long ago ? 

Of time absolute : Ever, never, always, eternally, perpetually, constantly, for- 
ever, incessantly, everlastingly, evermore, aye. 

Of time relative ; i. e., reckoned with, to, or from some other time : When, when- 
ever, then, meanwhile, meantime, as, while, whilst, till, until, after, afterward, 
afterwards, subsequently, before, late, early, betimes, seasonably. 

Of time repeated : Again, often, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, fre- 
quently, now and then, ever and anon, daily, weekly, hourly, monthly, yearly, 
anew, once, twice, thrice, four times, etc. 

Of time present : Now, to-day, nowadays, at present, yet (—heretofore and 
now), as yet. 

Of time past: Yesterday, heretofore, recently, lately, of late, already, formerly, 
just, just now, anciently, since, hitherto, long since, long ago. 

Of time future : Hereafter, henceforth, soon, to-morrow, shortly, erelong, by 
and by, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, forthwith, not yet, anon. 

Degree. Sow much? Sow little? To what extent? 

Adverbs of degree are not easily classified ; for adverbs from several other classes, espe- 
cially when they are to modify adjectives or adverbs, may be used to express degree. The 
following adverbs, to the dash-line, are not all strictly adverbs of degree. 

Adverbs showing how much, to what extent, or in what degree: Much, more, most, 
greatly, far, further, very, too, little, less, least, extra, mostly, entirely, chiefly, 
principally, mainly, generally,' commonly, usually, in general, fully, full, com- 
pletely, totally, wholly, perfectly, all, altogether, quite, exceedingly, immeasurably, 
immensely, excessively, boundlessly, infinitely, clear, stark, nearly, well-nigh, 
partly, partially, intensely, scarcely, scantily, precisely, enough, exactly, even, 
everso, just, equally, sufficiently, the, as, so, how, however, somewhat, at all. 

Of exclusion or emphasis : Merely, only, but, alone, simply, barely, just, particu- 
larly, especially, in particular. 

Adverbs implying something additional to what has been mentioned, or something 
beyond what might be expected, and often with emphasis ; Also, besides, else, still, 
yet, too, likewise, withal, moreover, furthermore, however, extra, eke, even, never- 
theless, anyhow. 

Adverbs implying cause or means : Why, wherefore, therefore, hence, thence, 
consequently, accordingly, whereby, hereby, thereby. 

Of negation: Not, nay, no, nowise, noway, noways, by no means. 

Of affirmation, admittance, or emphasis : Truly, doubtless, undoubtedly, un- 
questionably, forsooth, indeed, well, very well, well then, yes, yea, ay, verily, 
surely, certainly, really, assuredly, amen, of course, to be sure. 

Of doubt or uncertainty: Perhaps, probably, possibly, perchance, perad venture, 
haply, mayhap, may-be. 

The adverbs of the last three classes are sometimes termed modal adverbs ; 



62 PREPOSITIONS. 

because they enow, it is said, " the manner of assertion." They have a more di- 
rect reference to the mind of the speaker than the others have. We may deny or 
refuse, hesitate, consent ; disbelieve, doubt, believe ; pass from strong negation 
through doubt into strong positive assertion, and vice versa. 

Expletive Adverbs. These serve merely to begin sentences, in order to render 
them less blunt or more sprightly ; as, There, well, why. 

Conjunctive Adverbs. These connect as well as modify. They are usually ad- 
verbs of time, place, or manner ; as, When, where, while, till, as, etc. 

Interrogative Adverb?. These are those adverbs of the foregoing classes, which 
are used to ask questions ; as, Why? where* when? how? whither? 

From the foregoing list, it may be seen that the same word may sometimes be 
referred to one class of adverbs, and sometimes to another, according to its mean- 
iug. "I have just come." {Time.) "It is just full;" i. e., neither more nor 
less. {Extent or degree.) 

The pupil, after having carefully studied the foregoing catalogue, will probably 
be able to refer any adverb not in it to its proper class. It parsing, when an ad- 
verb can not be easily referred to some special class, or for the sake of saving time, 
it will be sufficient to refer the adverb to the general class to which it belongs, — 
to call it simply an adverb of manner, place, time, or degree. 

Will you mention six adverbs of manner? — three of place where? — three of place 
whence ? — three of place whither ? — three of order ? — three of time absolute t — three of time 
relative ? — three of time repeated ? — three of time present 1— three of time pant f — Viree of 
time future? — six of degree? — three implying exclusion? — three implying eo?nething 
additional ?— three of cause ?— -three of negation ?— three of affirmation ? — th ree of doubt ? 
—4hree expletive adverbs? — six conjunctive adverbs? — one interrogative adverb of man' 
n»r, one of place, and one of time ? — six adverbial phrases f 

7. PREPOSITIONS. 

When I say, u The horses are in the ferry-boat, the ferry-boat is on the river, 
and the river is between the hills;" you see that the words in, on, and between, 
show how different objects are relatively situated. These little words are called 
prepositions ; because preposition means placing before, and prepositions must 
generally be placed before nouns, to make the latter capable of being used as 
descriptive words. What, then, is a preposition ? 

A preposition is a word used to govern* a noun 
or pronoun, and show its relation to some other word. 

Ex. — In, on, under, above, over, around, at, from, to, through. A rabbit in a 
hollow tree, (What in what ?) How sweetly bloom the violets on yonder bank 1 

Two prepositions are sometimes combined, and some phrases are constantly 
used in the sense of prepositions. The former expressions may be called complex 
prepositions ; the latter, prepositional phrases ; or both may bo termed simpl/ 
prepositions. See the List. 



Exercises. 

The adverbs, and why ; of what kind, and what they modify : — 

Wisely, now, here, very. The horse runs swiftly. God is everywhere. 
Never befo/e did I see her look so pale. These things have always been so. 
I have been too idle heretofore, but hencerbrth I will study more diligently. 
Your book is more beautiful. He was lately here. You do not know him as well 
as I do. The hall was brilliantly illuminated, and densely crowded with hearers. 

Compare late, soon, early, much, little, well, ill, long, far, proudly, heroically. 

* Govern, to have such influence upon as to cause the case or form of. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



63 



What does a preposition usually join to some other word or part of the sentence ? 

A substantive denoting the place, time, possessor, 
cause, means, manner, or some other circumstance. 

Ex. — The apples hang on the tree. "We have snow in winter. He wa3 
stabbed by a volunteer, with the sword of a Kentuckian. To write with ease. 
What is an adjunct ? 

An adjunct* is a preposition with its object, or 
with the words required after it to complete the sense. 

Ex. — The wind glides in waves J over the bristling barley. 

How are adjuncts related to adjectives, adverbs, and possessives ? 

They are their equivalents ; the j often relieve them, 
or supply their deficiency ; and they are probably the 
richest group of descriptive expressions in language. 

Ex. — " A man of wisdom and virtue ,, =A wise and virtuous man. " To stand 
here"=To stand in this place. " The beauty of Absalom"— Absalom's beauty. 
" A land of liberty." No adjective. " To sail to New England." No adverb. 

Adjuncts show where, when, how, how long, of what kind, by whom, etc. 

Is the preposition always expressed ? 

It is sometimes understood. 

Ex. — "Give him his book"=Give his book to him. " I stood near him"==I 
stood near to him. " He is like his father"=He is like to or unto his father. 

A preposition without its object becomes an adverb, sometimes an adjective. 
See p. 60. A preposition is sometimes so blended with a verb or participial 
noun, as to become a part of it ; as, " He was laughed J at" i. e., ridiculed" 
"Our country is worth fighting \ for" 



List of Prepositions. 



A, 

aboard, 

about, 

above, 

across, 

after, 

against, 

along, 

amid, ) 

amidst, j 

among, j 

amongst, j 

around, 

aslant, 

at, 

athwart, 



bating, 

before, 

behind, 

below, 

beneath, 

beside, ) 

besides, ) 

between, 

betwixt, 

beyond, 

but, 

by, 

concerning, 
despite, 
down, 
during, 



ere, 


respecting, 


up, 


atween, 


except, 


round, 


upon, 


atwixt, 


excepting, 


save, 


versus, 


cross, 


for, 


saving, 


with, 


dehors, 


from, 


since, 


within, 


' inside, 


in, 


through, 


without. 


maugre, 


into, 


throughout, 




minus, 


notwith- 
standing, 


till, 
to, 


Not Common. 


outside, 
plus, 


of, 


touching, 


Abaft, 


sans, 


off, 


toward, ) 
towards, J 


adown, 


than, 


on, 


afore, 


thorough, 


over, 


under, 


aloft, 


via, 


past, 


underneath, 


alongside, 
aloof, 


withal, 


pending, 


until, 


withinside. 


per, 


unto, 


aneath. 





Aboard of, as for, from before, from out, 

according to, as to, from betwixt, from under, 

contrary to, because of, from beyond, out of, 

along with, from among, from off, round about. 

Can you repeat the prepositions that begin with a ? — b ? — c? — d ? — e?—f? — if— 
n ?—o ?—p ?—r ?—s t—t ?—u f—v ?—w ? 

* Ad'junct, from the Latin ad, to, &n<ljunctus, joined ; what is joined to something else. 



64 costjunctioxs. 

8. CONJUNCTIONS. 

When I say, "John and James write ;" " John writes and ciphers ;" " John 
spilt his ink on the desk and on the floor;" "John writes twice every day, and 
I generally look at his writing ;" you see that the word and brings on something 
more to what has been said, or joins together two words, two phrases, or two 
propositions ; and as conjunction means joining together, this word, and others liko 
it, have been called conjunctions. What definition, then, may bo given of a con- 
junction ? 

A conjunction is a word used to connect other 
words, and show the sense in which they are connected. 

Ex. — Grain will be cheap, and perhaps unsalable. Grain will be cheap, for 
the harvest is abundant. He rides, if he is sick. He rides, though he is sick. 
He rides, because he is sick. 

Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, and certain phrases are some- 
times used m the sense of conjunctions : as, " His health, as well as his estate, is 
ruined ; and yet he still persists in his course." The former expressions may be 
called complex conjunctions; and the latter, conjunctive phrases ; or both may bo 
termed simply conjunctions. 

What is a coordinate conjunction ? 

A coordinate conjunction connects parts of equal 
rank, or parts of which one does not modify the other. 

Ex. — And, but, or. " The woods are sprouting, and the dove is cooing." 
Here and conuects clauses which do not depend on each other, and therefore 
they are said to be coordinate, which means of equal rank. 

What is a subordinate conjunction f 

A subordinate conjunction connects parts of un- 
equal rank, or parts of which one modifies the other. 

Ex. — If, that, since, because. " I will work for you, if you pay me." 
Here if connects two clauses, of which one depends on the other, and therefore 
the dependent one is said to be subordinate, which means ranking under. 



Exercises. 

Mention the corresponding adverb : — 

True, new, sure, good, (well,) glaring, studious, ardent, bad, patient, noble, 
lazy, profuse, slavish, richer, (more richly,) richest, plainer, severest, necessary, 
graphic, critic, order, grammar, history, arithmetic, geography. 

With vigor; in a careless manner; without care ; iu what place; from what 
cause ; in this place ; in that place ; at all times ; at the present time ; in the 
lowest degree ; at that time ; one time ; from instinct ; by the year. 

The prepositions, and why ; and between what they show the relation : — 
Flowers are growing along the rivulet. I saw him, through a window. 
The bear was attacked by the dogs, and chased through a cane-brake into the 
river. My dinner is in my basket under the bench. Beneath the oak lie acorns 
in abundance. The hog never looks up to him who threshes down the acorns. 
By assisting me you will confer a favor on me. It happened since morning, and 
before eleven o'clock. They were rowing up the river • but we, down. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 65 

"What is a corresponding or correlative conjunction ? 

A corresponding conjunction suggests another con- 
junction, and assists it in connecting the same parts. 

Ex„ — I will neither buy nor sell. Though he reproves me, yet I esteem him. 

By examining the beginning of this section, what words would you infer may 
be connected by conjunctions ? 

Words of almost any part of speech. 

Where are conjunctions mostly used ? 

In connecting the parts of long sentences. 

Are conjunctions ever understood ? 

Sometimes they are ; and other words are generally 
understood after them. 

Ex. — "Rout, [and] ruin, [and] panic, scattered all." '"I knew [that] he 
had lost it." " You may first read this sentence, and then [you may] parse it." 

How may adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions be distinguished, or what is 
the chief characteristic of each class ? 

Adverbs modify or limit ; prepositions govern sub- 
stantives in the objective case ; and conjunctions 
connect. 

Ex. — "He took but one apple" — adverb. "I saw all but him" — -preposition. 
"I saw him, but he would not come" — conjunction. 

List of Conjunctions, 

1. Conjunctions implying continuance or addition, simply or emphatically: 
And, as well as, again, also, besides, both, moreover, furthermore, even, nay, so 
(=-also). {Copulative conjunctions.) 

2. Separation or choice : Or, nor, either, neither, or else. (Alternative or dis- 
junctive conjunctions.) 

3. Contrariety, restriction, or reservation: But, yet, still, however, howso- 
ever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, unless (=but not . . . if), except, that, save. 
(Adversative or restrictive conjunctions.) 

4. Comparison : Than, as. (Comparative conjunctions.) 

5. Concession : Although, though, even if, even though, notwithstanding, 
albeit; and perhaps, what though (=although). (Concessive conjunctions.) 

6. Condition or doubt: If, unless (=if not), whether, provided, provided 
that, in case that, so, except, lest. (Conditional or contingent conjunctions.) 

7. Cause or reason : Because, for, since, as, seeing, inasmuch as, forasmuch 
as, whereas. (Causal conjunctions.) 

8. Consequence or inference : Then, so, therefore, wherefore. (Illative con- 
junctions.) 

9. Purpose, motive, or statement : That, so that, in order that, lest, so as. 



10. Corresponding conjunctions : Either — or; neither — nor; whether— or:, 
if — then ; though, or although — yet ; both — and j as — so j as — as. 



66 INTERJECTIONS. 

Conjunctions are sonvatimes accumulated, or take adverbial particles, merely 
to strengthen or to modify slightly the connection between the parts. Some* 
times, phrases even, or adverbial particles, may be treated simply as conjunctions, 
unless great accuracy is required; or else they may be analyzed more rigidly 
otherwise, especially by supplying such words as can be reasonably supposed to 
have been omitted. 

The conjunctions of the first three classes are chiefly coordinate ; the others, to 
the tenth class, subordinate. The former rather indicate the movements and 
turns of thought; the latter subjoin parts that are used more or less in the 
sense of parts of speech. 

Can you mention, two copulative conjunctions? — two alternative t (Pass thus 
through the list.) 

9. INTERJECTIONS. 

In every language, there are certain words used when the mind is suddenly 
or greatly excited, in order to give vent to some strong feeling or sudden emo- 
tion ; as, Oh ! alas ! These words are called interjections, a word that means 
thrown among; because interjections are so loosely combined with the other 
words of a sentence, that they seem thrown among them, or seem to bo thrown 
into discourse by the force of passion, without regard to syntax. 

What is an interjection ? 

An interjection is a word that expresses an emo- 
tion only, and is not connected in construction with 
any other word. 

Ex. — Alas ! fie ! ! oh ! hurrah ! hail ! adieu I Grave ! where is thy 
victory! Ah! Terentia, I am worn out with grief. Pshaw ! never mind it. 

As the heart is susceptible of many different emotions or feelings, the inter- 
jections may be divided into various classes. 

List of Interjections. 

1» Of sorrow, grief, or pity : Ohl alas! ah! alack! hoo ! welladay 

2. Of earnestness or joy : 01 eigh ! hey! eh! ha! 

3. Of surprise, wonder, or horror: Hah! ha! what! h'm ! heigh! strange! 
indeed! hey-dey! la! whew! zounds! eh! ah! oh! hoity-toity! 

4. Of contempt or aversion : Pshaw ! pish ! tut ! tush ! poh ! fob ! bah ! humph / 
faugh! whew! off! begone! avaunt! 

5. Of exultation or approbation : Aha ! ah ! hey ! huzzah ! hurrah ! good ! bravo ! 

6. Of attention or calling : Ho! lo! behold! look! see! hark! la! heigh-ho I 
soho ! hollo ! halloa ! hoy ! hold ! whoh ! halt ! 'at ! 

7. Of silence : Hush ! hist ! whist ! 'st ! aw ! mum ! 

8. Of interrogating : Eh ? hem, or h'm ? (The opposite of tho preceding class.) 

9. Of detection: Aha! oho! ay-ay I 

10. Of laughter : Ha, ha, ha ! he, he, he 1 

11. Of saluting or parting : Welcome! hail! all-hail! adieu/ good-byl and 
perhaps good-day ! good-night ! good-morning ! good-evening ! 

It is difficult to make a satisfactory classification of interjections ; for some 
of them are used in various senses. When the learner meets with an interjec- 
tion, it is perhaps best that he should determine its meaning from the spirit of the 
sentence or discourse. 

Can you mention iwo interjections 'oj 'grief T— two of joy T (Pass thus through the List.) 



BTJLES OF SYNTAX. 67 

If a man cultivates the earth, he may be styled a farmer ; if the same 
man should engage in the business of buying and selling goods, a merchant ; 
if in preaching the gospel, a preacher : even so the same word, according 
to its use, is sometimes of one part of speech, and sometimes of another. 

Ex. — " A Hack horse ;" " To black boots ;" " Black is a color." See p. 152. 

The first black Ss> an adjective ; the second, a verb ; and the third, a noon. 

lO. RULES OF SYNTAX. 

THE RELATIONS OF WORDS TO ONE ANOTHER, IN THE STRUCTURE OP 

SENTENCES. 

Words are used to express thoughts ; but every thought requires two 
or more words to be associated or grouped together, in order to express 
it. Almost every word, therefore, is so made or modified, or is of such a 
nature, that it looks to some other word for complete sense, and would be 
as unmeaning and useless by itself as a detached piece of a steam-engine. 
Ex. — " The white house gleaming on yonder hill, was built long ago for me 
and my family to live in it." The relates to house, showing that some particular 
one is meant; white relates to house, describing it; house relates to was built, the 
thing said of it ; gleaming relates to house, describing it ; on relates to gleaming 
and hill, showing where ; hili relates to on, showing on what ; was built relates 
to house, showing what is said of it ; long ago relates to was built, showing when; 
for relates to was built and me and my family, showing the purpose ; me and my 
family relates to for ; and connects me and family, showing that the two are to 
be taken together ; my relates to family, showing what family ; to live relates to 
me and family, showing what we do; in relates to it and to live, showing where; 
and it relates to house as the thing meant, and to in, as denoting where. This 
illustration may teach you, to some extent, what the following Rules mean. 

£T3"" The teacher may show the relations of words in sentences still better, by writing the fore- 
going sentence, and the most suitable of the following sentences, on the blackboard, and then joining 
the related words by connecting lines drawn above and below. 



Exercises. 

The conjunctions, what they imply, and ivhat they c 

Him and her we know ; but who are you ? It ran around the house, and 
under the floor. You must study, if you would be wise. He is neither edu- 
cated, nor naturally wise. I will either come or send. 

The interjections, and why ; then of ichat kind : — 

! oh ! alas ! welcome ! ho ! ah ! tush I hurrah ! Deluded hopes 1— oh, 
worse than death ! Tut ! such aristocracy ! Adieu ! adieu ! dear native land. 

Supply the words omitted : — 

A man and woman were drowned. You may write, and then cipher. Give 
him his book. He is like you. A book of my sister's. John knows more 
than Rufus. The first tree and the fourth are dead. I have lost the letter 
you wrote. "Who bets, should be willing to lose. The door opens to whoever 
knocks. ( — any one who — ) Here are the marbles: take which is yours. 
Let it be. Arm, soldiers! How now, Tubal; what news from Genoa? 
Sweet the pleasure, rich the treasure. Strange indeed. Soon ripe, soon rotten. 

Change the position of the words, without changing the meaning : — 

After a painful struggle, I yielded to my fate. Sweet songs were heard the 
leafy dells along. Me glory summons to the martial scene.- Various, sincere, 
and constant are the efforts of men to attain happiness. Gone, for ever gone, 
are the happy days of youth. (See Gray's Elegy, 4th stanza, p. 131.) 



68 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule I.— Nominatives. 
A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a finite 
verb, must be in the nominative case. 

Pam. We are. He is. (Who is?) They are. Were I. Shall you go? 
Go thou hence. Thou dar'st not. She sings well. Yonder comes the powerful 
king of day. Come ye> in peace here, or come ye in war ? There is a calm for 
those luho weep. Wheat, corn, and tobacco, are the principal productions. Large 
quantities of hides and tallow are exported. The man who is industrious, can 
earn what he needs. (Who can earn ? Observe that the nominative relative is 
the subject of the verb next to it ; and its antecedent, of the verb beyond.) 
Who is he 1 (He is who ?) Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he, who first 
broke peace in Heaven ? / have less than he [has]. Talent is full of thoughts ; 
but Genius, full of thought. To lie is disgracefuL That liars are not believed 
when they tell the truth, is just a part of their punishment. 

* I is a pronoun, in the nominative case to am, according to Rule I. (Repeat it. Pass 
thus through all the examples under each Rule ; and, at some future time, parse the words.) 

Rule II.— Nominatives. 
A noun or pronoun used independently or abso- 
lutely, must be in the nominative case. 

Independent. — By direct address'. Go, Tubal* go. Plato, thou reasonst 
well. By exclamation : Three thousand ducats! 'tis a good round l sum. To be — 
or not to be, — that is tin question! {Life or death, — that is the question!) By 
•pleonasm or specification : The Pilgrim Fathers, — where are they? 'My banks 
they are furnished with bees. Worcester's Dictionary, Unabridged. (Title.) 

Absolute. -J- — Before a participle : The rain having ceased, the sun reap- 
peared. The steed [being] at hand, why longer tarry ? {Being is often understood.) 
After a participle or an infinitive : The vanity of beiug a belle. To bo a good 
Christian, was his highest ambition. No one suspected his being a foreigner. 

* Tubal \s a noun ; and it is in the nominative case independent, by direct address, ac- 
cording to Rule II. t" Since you are alone, I will return ;" "He has become a.lieutenant ;' 
"There is no doubt that he is a patriot; "There i» no doubt that he is patriotic, eta 
Change these finite verbs into participles and infinitives, and the Italic words are a 

or set free, from their former dependence. 

Rule III.— Possessives. 
A noun or pronoun that limits the meaning of an- 
other by denoting possession, must be in the possessive case. 

John's* horse. (That is, not any horse, but the one that belongs to John.) 
Sir Walter Scott's works. Whose book is it, if not mine [=my book] ? Fulton's 
invention. (See p. 18.) Boys 1 clothing. Smith's [store] and Barton's store. 
Smith, Allen, and Barton's store. Call at Smith's, the bookseller.} (That is, 
at Smith's house or store.) The captain of the Neptune's wife. (Whoso wife, — 
the captain's or the Neptune's ? See p. 89.) Evidence of their having quarreled. 

* John's is a noun, in the possessive case, governed by horse, according to Rule III. 
t Bookseller is in the possessive case, and agrees with Smith's, according to Rule YII. 

Rule IV.— Objectives. 
A noun or pronoun iised as the object of a transi- 
tive verb, must be in the objective case. 

I caught them* He shot a deer. The soil produces cotton, rice, and sugar. 
I saw him, and he saw me. " WJwm did you hit ? — John." (Supply " I hit.") 
Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I hid myself 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 69 

Teach us. Teach us grammar. (See Comp. Gram., pp. 148, 149.) Teach me to 
feel another's woe. Give us our daily bread. (Supply to.) They crowned Mm 
king. (See Rule VII.) The lightnings flashed a brighter curve. He talked 
Himself hoarse. Having made the law, enforce it. By reading good books, you 
will improve. To see green fields, is pleasant. I knew Mm well, and every 
truant knew. He rode the horse ; and I, the mule. Most children like to play — 
like sleigMng and skating. Do you know when to send ? No one knows how much 
the fellow is in debt. The sentry cried out, " Who goes there V "Has Mary 
come ? — How can I tell?" (Supply " whether she has come") 

* Them is a pronoun, in the objective case, being the object of the verb caught, accord- 
ing to Kule IV. 

Rule V.— Objectives. 
A noun or pronoun used as the object of a prepo- 
sition, must be in the objective case. 

It was sent by me* to him. (That is, we could not say, when speaking cor- 
rectly, "It was sent by I to he.") A melon for three pears and five peaches. 
By reading in good books, you will improve. Come, walk with me the jungle 
through. Lend me your knife. (Supply to.) Here he had need all circumspec- 
tion. " Of whom did you buy it ? — Jones." The river flowed from under the 
palaces. She never comes except to scold. The question of what are to be the 
powers of the crown, is superior to that of who is to wear it. 

* Ma ia a pronoun, in the objective case, governed by the preposition by, etc. 

Rule VI.— Objectives. 
A noun or pronoun used without a governing 
word, but modifying like an adjunct or adverb some 
other word, must be in the objective case. 

The street is a mile* long, and forty feet wide. (Long and wide to what ex- 
tent?) He remained five days. {During five days. A preposition can generally 
be supplied. These objectives are abridged adjuncts without the preposition, just 
as in vain, in short, etc., are abridged adjuncts without their objects.) The horse 
ran six miles. It is a ton heavier. I do not care a stravj. The milk is a little 
sour. The knife is worth a dollar. (Here worth is an adjective — valuable to the 
extent of a dollar) He went home. I was taught music, and she was taught 
it. "He has been here' five times" And perhaps, " Five times four are twenty." 

Most nouns under this Rule denote some estimate of space, time, weight, ox value. 

* Mile is a noun, and in the objective case, limiting long, according to Rule VI. 

Rule VII.— Same Cases. 
A noun or pronoun used merely for explanation or 
emphasis by being predicated or assumed of another, or 
by denoting the same object, must be in the same case* 

This Rule embraces two kinds of construction : same case, by apposition ; and 
same case, by predication, or after an intransitive verb. When the explauatory 
term is not joined to the principal term by a verb, it is said to be in apposition with 
its principal, or is called an appositive; when it is so joined, it is callecf a predicate* 
substantive.^ Apposition: On the river Eudson.\ Here lives Johnson the lawyer. 

Predication : Jackson was the general who was elected President. 

Miscellaneous: Taxes, endless taxes, are the consequences of corruption. Ho, 
being the eldest son, inherited the estate. She looks a goddess, and she walks a 
queen. They made him captain. He was made captain. If we whip the enemy, 
it is a victory ; if we do not, we call it strategy. Tea is the dried leaves of a 
Chinese shrub. Our liberties, our greatest blessing, we shall not surrender. I 
4 



YO RULES OF SYNTAX. 

am the man. Hail, Sabbath ! theo I hail — the poor man's day. Ye scenes of 
my childhood. Explain the terms reason and instinct. They bore each [one] a 
banner. They regard winter as the season of domestic enjoyment. I myself 
went. It was I. What is he ? (He is what ?) Whom do you take mo to be ? 
Which is which t ("Which is the right one ?j It is easy to spend money. It is 
not known how the Egyptians embalmed their dead. 

* One Rule. Compare with " A good boy," " The boy is good " — also one Rule, t Hud- 
son is a noun, in the objective case, to agree with river, according to, etc. 

Rule VIII— Two Cases. 
The relative what, or a like term zulien its form 
allows them, may supply two cases* 

I took what suited me.f Whoever sins, shall suffer. I will employ wlwmsoever 
you recommend. Take whichever horse you like. The lion will kill whatever 
man touches him. 

* This Rule is merely a convenience ; for it can be dispensed with, by applying two other 
Rules, t W%otia a relative pronoun, representing thing and which; and it "is used here as 
the object of took and the subject of united, according to Rule VIII. 

Rule IX.— Pronouns. 
A pronoun must agree witli its antecedent, in gen- 
der, person, and number* 

Mary lost her book.f The best throw with the dice, is to throw them away. 
Liberty has God on her side. John and James know their lessons. (What 
makes a singular or plural subject, makes also a singular or plural antecedent. See 
p. 42.) Neither John nor James knows his lesson. Every heart best knows its 
own sorrows. You, Henry, and I, must weed our garden. Pupils, obey your 
teachers. The people and their rulers The mob and its leader. And there her 
brood the partridge led. (The antecedent sometimes follows the pronoun.) Too 
low they build, ivho build beneath the stars. (A relative may refer to a different 
pronoun as its antecedent.) Who that knows him, would trust him ? You aro 
very sick, and I am sorry for it. (The antecedent may be a phrase or clause.) 
You wrote to me, which was all you did. Said Joseph to his brother, M I will 
go with you." 

* This Rule is applied, only when it is definitely known what the antecedent is. t Her is 
a personal pronoun, of the feminine gender, 3d person, and singular number, to agree with 
Mary, etc. 

Rule X.— Articles and Adjectives. 
An article or an adjective belongs to the noun or 
'pronoun to which it relates. 

Articles. — Bring a* | rose from the | garden. A ] gardener s wages. Once 
upon a summer's day. A \ noun and pronoun. (Supply a.) The J Iwnse and 
lot. An | industrious people, having a | great many curious inventions. (The ar- 
ticle relates to the entire phrase after it.) 

Adjectives. — T/tis apple is ripe. I am sorry that you are not better. The 
clay burned white. The story is interesting. A thick stone wall. Enry | seven 
days. (Every relates to the phrase.) The truly good [people] aro liappy. To 
live comfortably, is desirable. (What is desirable ?) 

Note X. — An adjective is sometimes used absolutely after a preceding 
participle or infinitive. 

To be good is to be happy. (Goodness is happiness.) The way to be happy, is to 
bo good. The dread of be'mz poor. (This Note can often be dispensed with, by 
regarding the phrase as a noun, or by supplying a noun. See Cornp. Gram., p. 188.) 

* A is an article, and belongs to rose, according to Rule X. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 71 

Rule XI —Finite Verbs. 
A Unite verb must agree with its subject, in per- 
son and number. 

He is* (Who is ?) They are. Thou art. I am. Tea and silk are brought^ 
from the East. (See p. 42.) A week or a month soon passes^ away. Every 
horse and mule was taken. You, he, and I, are allowed^ to go. (We.) You or 
I am mistaken. (You are, etc.) ' Our people are\ enterprising. No nation is at 
war with us. Down went the ship and her gallant crew. Down went the ship, 
with her gallant crew. The saint, the father, and the husband, prays. (One 
person.) The ''Pleasures of Hope" was written by Campbell. (One thing.) 
To turn and fly was now impossible. For thine is the kingdom, and the power, 
and the glory. (Repeat thine is.) John, as well as his brother, was drafted. 
Believe [thouj and obey. Bead, John. He that seeketh, findeth. To write ten lines 
a day, | is sufficient. That so many are ruined in large cities, | is owing to bad 
examples. All work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy. (To have all, etc.) 

* Is is a verb, in the 3d p., s. n., to agree with He, according to, etc. t Say, — "and in the 
3d pers., plur. n., to agree -with Tea and coffee, a plural subject," etc. % Say, — " to agree with 
week or month, a singular subject," etc. § Say, — "to agree with You, he, and /, equivalent 
to We." I Say, — " to agree yvith. people, a collective noun that expresses a plural idea," etc. 

Note XI. — In a few peculiar expressions, finite verbs are used without a 
suitable subject, or without any subject. 

Ex. — " Methiriks." And perhaps, " God said, Let us make man in our image." 
"Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run 
By angels many and strong." — Milton's P. L., B. VI. 

Rule XII,— Participles and Infinitives. 

A poivtieiple relates to the noun or pronoun which is the 
subject of the act or state. 

An infinitive relates to an expressed or indefinite sub- 
ject ; and it may besides modify the meaning, or complete 
the construction, of some other part of the sentence. 

The last clause of this Rule often applies also to participles. The subject of a 
participle or an infinitive, is the noun or pronoun denoting the object to which the 
act or state belongs ; and it may be in the objective case, as well as in the nominative. 
Columbus became wearied* and disheartened by impediments thrown in his 
way. The Passions oft, to hear her shell, thronged around her magic cell. We 
walked out to see the moon rising. Now is the time to sell. A mountain so high 
as to be invisible. 

* Wearied is a participle, and it relates to Columbus, according to, etc. t To hear is an 
infinitive that relates to Passions as its subject, and to thronged, as showing the purpose, 
according to, etc. % To sell relates to an indefinite or unexpressed subject, and modifies 
time, — by showing what time it is, — according to, etc. 

Note XII. — A participle or an infinitive is sometimes used absolutely or 
independently. 

To go prepared, is necessary. Generally speaking, young men are better for busi- 
ness than old men are. To go about, seeking employment, is irksome. But, to 
proceed : It has been frequently remarked, etc. Every man has, so to speak, several 
strings by which he may be pulled. (Suitable words can generally be supplied, to 
avoid the necessity of using this Note.) 

(The infinitive is the most irksome element in syntax. I therefore offer to teachers the 
following Rule for trial, as one that will reach all constructions of participles and infinitives, 
and whose truthfulness most examples strikingly attest. 

Rule XII. — A participle or an infinitive, being apart of the verb, 
relates to an expressed or indefinite subject ; and it may besides have the sense 
of a noun, an adjective, an adverb, or a clause^ 



72 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule XIII.— Adverbs. 
An adverb belongs to the word or words which it 
modifies. 

A most* beautiful horse galloped very \ rapidly up the road. There was nothing 
there that I wanted. When will you go ? The cooler the water, the better I like 
it. " Did you see him ? — No." (No relates to the question. Seep. 59.) Icon- 
suited him once or twice, not \ oftener. (Supply words.) Secondly, we could wait 
no | longer. " Will you go there ? — I go there ? Never. 11 You have perhaps not 
noticed quite all the adverbs in the sentence which I have just read. 
• Most is an adverb of degree, modifies beautiful, and belongs to it, according to, etc. 

Note XIII. — A conjunctive adverb joins on something that usually expresses 
the time, place, or manner ; or that is used in the sense of an adverb, an ad- 
', or a noun. 



Ex.—" Go when you please." " The grave where our hero was buried." (What 
grave?) "I know how you got it." (Know what?) "He did as I said." 
(How ?) In stead of this Note, the Eule can be applied, by parsing the adverb as 
relating to the verbs in both propositions. 

Eemark XIII. — An adverb appears to be sometimes used independently. 

Ex. — " Well, I really don't know what to do." " Why, that is a new idea." 
Adverbs thus used partake somewhat of the nature of both conjunctions and in- 
terjections. Yes, nay, amen, etc., are usually parsed as being independent, though 
they nearly always relate to the preceding sentence or discourse. 

Rule XIV.— Prepositions, 
A preposition shows the relation of an antecedent 
term, to a subsequent term in the objective case. 

The antecedent term may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verb, an adverb, or 
even a phrase ; the subsequent term must be a substantive. 



Aman [ o/* | wisdom spoke. The man spoke \ of\ wisdom. Parrhasius stood 
gazing upon the canvas. (What upon what?) The trees most beautiful in 
spring, blossomed along the bank on the other side of the river. He took the 
slate from him and me, and gave it to her for whom he had bought it. Oranges 
grow, like apples, on small trees. He is too old for service. He came from be- 
yond Jordan. Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole. (Terms 
inverted.) She has nothing to live for. (For ivhich to live.) 

* Of is a preposition, and sbows the relation between spoke and wisdom, etc. Analysis 
will always help to show between what words the preposition shows the relation. 

Rule XV.— Conjunctions. 
Conjunctions connect clauses or sentences; and 
also words or phrases in the same construction. 

Weeds \ a n d \ briers now grow in the field, because it is not cultivated. A 
long and cordial friendship had existed between him and mc. If you desire it, 
I will both write to him and speak to him about the matter. And so it may be 
that infancy is a happier period than manhood, and manhood than old age. (Sup- 
ply words.) 

Rule XVI.— Interjections. 

Interjections have no grammatical connection ivith 

other words. 

Ah me ! (Ah ! woe to me !) Oh I luckless [am] I. Aha ! caught at last 
Can you repeat Rule 1st f—2d f—Sd t-Ath T—5lh T—6th t—Uh f— 8th f—9th f—lQth T~ 
11th ?—\Wi f—13th f—Uth t—\bth ?—\ 6t/t f 



SUMMARY. 73 

SUMMAKY OF PASSING. 

1. A noun is a name. 

is a proper, common, or collective noun ; of the masculine, feminine, 

common, or neuter gender ; the first, second, or third person ; the singular or 
plural number ; and the nominative, possessive, or objective case. Rule I, II, 
III, IV, V, VI, VII, or VIII. 

2. A pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a noun. 

is a personal, relative, or interrogative pronoun ;* of the masculine, fem- 
inine, common, or neuter gender ; the first, second, or third person ; the sin- 
gular or plural number; (Rule IX, if the pronoun has an antecedent ;) (declen- 
sion ;) and in the nominative, possessive, or objective case. Rule I, II, III, IV, 
V, VI, VII, or VIII. 

* There may also occur demonstrative, distributive, indefinite, or reciprocal pronouns. 

3. An article is a word placed before a noun, to show how 
the noun is applied. 

is the definite or indefinite article. Rule X. 

4. An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the mean- 
ing of a noun or pronoun. 

is a descriptive or a definitive adjective ; (compare it, if it can be com- 
pared ;) in the positive, comparative, or superlative degree. Rule X. 

5. A verb is a word used to affirm something of a subject. 

— — is a regular or an irregular verb ; transitive or intransitive ; (if transi- 
tive) in the active or the passive voice ; in the indicative, subjunctive, potential, 
or imperative mood ; the present, past, future, perfect, pluperfect, or future-perfect 
tense, and the common, emphatic, progressive, or ancient form; (conjugation ;) in 
the first, second, or third person, and the singular or plural number. Rule XL 

A participle is a form of the verb, that merely assumes the 
act or state, and is generally construed like an adjective. 

is a transitive or an intransitive, active or passive (if transitive), present 

or perfect, or compound present or perfect participle, from the verb . 

Rule XII. 

An infinitive is a form of the verb, that begins generally with 
to, and expresses no affirmation. 

is a transitive or an intransitive, active or passive (if transitive), present 

or perfect infinitive, from the verb . Rule XII. 

<>. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 

is an adverb of manner, place, time, or degree. Rule XIII. 

7. A preposition is a word used to govern a noun or pro- 
noun, and show its relation to some other word. 

is a preposition, showing the relation between . Rule XIV. 

8» A conjunction is a word used to connect other words, 
and show the sense in which they are connected. 

is a copulative, adversative, alternative, distributive, comparative, con- 
ditional, corresponding, etc., conjunction, or a conjunction expressing purpose, 
conclusion, statement, etc. ; and it connects . Rule XV. 

9. An interjection is a word that expresses an emotion 
only, and is not connected in construction with any other word. 

is an interjection of grief, joy, surprise, contempt, etc. Rule XVI. 



74 EXERCISES. 

INTKODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

Analysis is the resolving of a sentence into its clauses, 
phrases, and words, according to the sense in which they are put 
together. 

Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its parts of speech, 
and telling their grammatical properties. 

Sentence Building. 
Sentences are made of words. The core or chief combination 
of words, in making sentences, is predication. 

1. Simplest Combination of Subject and Predicate. 

Soldiers fight.* Dogs bark. Time flies. Wolves howl. 
Hens cackle. Doves coo. Jewels glitter. Bells are tolling. 
Bees were humming. Mary was chosen. "We shall return. 

Analysis. — * This is a simple sentence. The subject is Soldiers, and the pred- 
icate is fight. (The teacher should ask such questions, and require such reasons 
to be given, as he may deem most instructive to the pupil.) 

Parsing. — Soldiers is a common noun ; of the masculine gender, third person, 
plural number; and in the nominative case %o fight, according to Rule I. (Repeat 
the Rule.) Fight is an irregular intransitive verb ; its principal parts are, present 
fight, past fovght, present participle fighting, perfect participle fought ; and it is in 
the third person, plural number, to agree with its subject Soldiers, according to 
Rule XL We is a personal pronoun ; of the common gender, first person, plural 
number ; and in the nominative case to shall return, according to Rule I. 

2. Object added to the Predicate-Verb. 

Dogs bite strangers.* Wolves catch lambs. Lightning 
strikes trees. Raccoons steal corn. Misers love gold. Mer- 
chants sell goods. Horses draw carriages. I shall see him. 

Analysis. — * This is a simple sentence. The subject is Dogs. The entire predi- 
cate is bite strangers ; the predicate-verb is bite, which is limited by the object 
strangers. (Bite what ? A word limits or modifies another, when it completes or 
fixes its meaning. A modifying word or expression is called a modifier.) 

Parsing. — Dogs is a common noun ; of the masculine gender, third person, 
plural number ; and in the nominative case to the verb bite, according to Rule I. 
Bite is an irregular transitive verb ; its principal parts are bite, bit, biting, bitten; 
etc., as above. Strangers is a com. noun ; of the c. g., 3d p., p. n. ; and iii the ob- 
jective case — because 'it is the object of the verb bite — according to Rule IV. 

3. Article or Adjective added to the Subject or the Object. 

The vessel was wrecked.* John found a knife. Leaves 
cover the ground. Sweet music rose. The young lady wrote 
a good composition. Tall and beautiful poplars fringe the river. 

Analysis. — * This is a simple sentence. The entire subject is The vessel ; the subject- 
nominative is vessel, Which is modified by the article The. Was wrecked is the predicate. 

Parsing. — The is the definite article ; and it belongs to vessel, according to Rule X. 
(Parse vessel like Dogs above.) Was wrecked is a regular verb, In the passive voice ; prin- 
cipal parts, wreck, icrecked, wrecking, wrecked ; and it agrees with vessel, in the third person 
and singular number, according to Rule XI. 

Sweet is a descriptive adjective, in the positive degree ; positive siceet, comparative 
sweeter, superlative sweetest ; and it belongs to music, according to Rule X. 

And is a copulative conjunction, connecting tall and beautiful, according to Rule XV. 



EXERCISES. 75 

4. Adjective or Nominative added to the Predicate-Verb. 

Lead is heavy.* Most people are ambitious. A bad com- 
panion is dangerous. The wind blew cold. Flies are insects.* 
The rose is a famous flower. It was you. 

Analysis. — * This is a simple sentence. Lead is the subject. Is heavy is the predicate ; 
is is the predicate-verb, and it is limited, or has its construction completed, by the adjec- 
tive heavy. Or say, Is is the predicate-verb, and it is limited by heavy, an attribute of the 
subject. See p. 116. (Analyze are insects in like manner.) 

Parsing. — (Parse Lead like Soldiers.) Is is an irregular intransitive verb; its principal 
parts are be or am, was, being, been; and it agrees with its subject Lead, in the 3d p. and 
s. n., according to Rule XI. Heavy is a descriptive adjective, in the positive degree ; (com- 
pare it ;) and it belongs to Lead, according to Rule X. 

(Parse Flies and are like Lead and is above.) Insects is a common noun; of the c. g., 
3d p., p. n. ; and in the nominative case, to agree with Flies, according to Rule VII. 

5. Adverb added to the Predicate- Verb. 

John comes frequently.* Good jpupils study diligently. 
The procession moved slowly. The eagle flew round and up- 
wards. Flowers are peeping out everywhere. I was there. 

Analysis. — * This is a simple sentence. The subject is John. The entire predicate is 
conies frequently ; comes is the predicate- verb, and it is modified by the adverb frequently. 

Parsing. — Frequently is an adverb of time : and it belongs to comes, according to 
Rule XIII. 

6. Adjunct added to the Predicate -Verb. 

The mountain is clothed with evergreens.* The wind glided 
over the grass. Our troubles are aggravated by imaginary evils. 
My cousin went to your house, at noon, in a carriage. 

Analysis.—-* This is a simple sentence. The entire subject is The mountain ;the subject- 
nominative is mountain, which is limited by the article The. Is clothed with evergreens is 
the entire predicate ; is clothed is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the adjunct with 
evergreens. 

Parsing. — With is a preposition, showing the relation between is clothed and evergreens, 
according to Rule XIV. Evergreens is a common noun ; of the n. g., 3d p., p. n. ; and in the 
objective case—it is the object of the preposition with— according to Rule V. 

7. Adjunct added to the Subject or the Object. 

A wreath of rose-buds encircled her head* She brought a 
basket of fruit. The old oak is loaded with a flock of singing 
blackbirds. The path through the woods is cool and pleasant. 

Analyse.— * This is a simple sentence. The entire subject is A wreath of rose-buds ; the 
subject-nominative is wreath, which is limited by the article A and the adjunct of rose- 
buds. Encircled her head is the entire predicate ; encircled is the predicate-verb, which is 
limited by the object head, and head is limited by the possessive her. 

Parsing. — O/is a preposition; showing the relation between wreath and rose-buds, ac- 
cording to Rule XIV. Rose-buds is a c. n. ; of the n. g., ?d p., p. n. ; and in the objective 
case— it is the object of the preposition of— according to Rule V. 

8. Possessive or Appositive added to the Subject or the Object. 

My hat is new.* Mary's eyes are blue. Our neighbor's bees 
left their hive. Rogers the poet was a banker, f Lake Erie is a 
beautiful sheet of water. We visited Rome, the capital of Italy. 

Analysis.—* This is a simple sentence. The entire subject is My hat; the subject-nomi- 
Da 7m! s . ' wbich is modified by the possessive My. (Analyze is neio like is heavy above.) 

T This is a simple sentence. The entire subject is Rogers the poet; the subject-nomi- 
native is Rogers, which is limited by the appositive poet, and pod is modified by the article the. 

1 arsing. —My is a personal pronoun; of the common gender, first person, singular num- 
ber ; and in the possessive case, limiting hat, according to Rule III. Poet is a c. n. ; of the 
m. g., 3d p., s. n. ; and in the nominative case, to agree with Rogers, according to Rale VII. 



n 



11. PARSING. 



General Formula. — The part of speech, and why; the kind, and why; 
the propertieSj and why ; the relation to other words, and according to 
what Kule. 

ArticI e s. 

Formula. — An article, and why ; • \] n l % [ and why ; to what it belongs, 
and according to what Rule. 

"The river." 

" Th e" is an article, — a word placed before a noun to show how it is applied : 
definite, it shows that some particular river is meant ; and it belongs to u river, 
according to Rule X : " An article belongs to the noun to which it relates.* 

Abridged. — The is the definite article ; and it belongs to river, etc. 

"River" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name that can be applied 
to every object of the same kind ; neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a 
female ; third person, it represents an object as spoken of ; singular number, it 
means but one. 

Analysis. — Tlie river is a phrase. The principal word is river, modified by the article 
The. (All the following exercises may be first analyzed, and then parsed, if the teacher 
deems it best to do so.) 

In like manner parse the following phrases : — 

The man. The men. A rose. An arrow. 

The horse. The horses. A melon. An island. 

The child. The children. A university. An uncle. 

"A man's hat." 

"A" is an article, — a word placed before a noun to show how it is applied-. 
indefinite, it shows that no particular man is meant ; and it belongs to " man's, 
according to Rule X. (Repeat it.) 

Abridged. — A is the indefinite article ; and it belongs to man's, etc. 

" Ma n ' s " is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name common to all objects 
of the same kind ; masculine gender, it denotes a male ; third person, it represents 
an object as spoken of; singular number, it means but one ; and in tbe possessive 
case, it limits the meaning of " hat," according to Rule III. (Repeat it.) 

11 Hat" is parsed like " river." 

Abridged. — Man's is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third person, 
singular number ; and in the possessive case, governed by hat, according to, etc. 
Axaltsis. — A man's hat is a phrase. The principal word is hat, modified by man\ 
showing what hat; and man's is modified by A, showing that no particular man is meant. 

In like manner parse the following phrases : — 

A neighbor's farm. The boy's book. 

An Indian's hatchet. The boys' books. 

The sun's splendor. Women's fancies. 

Adjectives. 

Formula— An adjective, and why ; ffZ^vT' \ and wby ; whether com - 
jpared or not, and how ; tho degree, and why ; to what it belongs, and according 
to what Rule. 

* It is not necessary, in parsing, to repeat more of a Kulo than tho example requires. 



11 



" A beautiful morning, with a refreshing breeze/ 1 



"Beaut ifu V is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning 
of a noun ; descriptive, it describes or qualifies the morning ; compared pos. beauti- 
ful, comp. more beautiful, superl. most beautiful ; in the positive degree, it expresses 
the quality simply ; and it belongs to " morning,'''' according to Rule X. (Repeat it.) 

Abbidged. — Beautiful is a descriptive adjective, in the positive degree (pos. 
beautiful, comp. more beautiful, superl. most beautiful) ; and it belongs to morning. 

''Refreshing" is an adjective, — a word, etc. * * * participial, it 
ascribes the act to its subject as a quality ; and it belongs to " breeze," according 
to Eule X. (Eepeat it.) 

Abbidged. — Refreshing is a participial adjective, from the verb refresh ; and it 
belongs to breeze, according to Eule X. (Eepeat it.) 

Analysis. — A beautiful morning, with a refreshing breeze, is a phrase. (Give defini- 
tion.) The principal word is morning, which is modified by the article A, the adjective 
beautiful, and the adjunct with a refreshing breeze. Breeze is modified by the article a, 
the adjective refreshing, and joined to morning by the preposition with. 



A a ripe melon. A whiter rose. The fairest lady. 

A dark night. Purling streams. The black- winged redbird. 

An early riser. Ground corn. The red- winged blackbird. 

Delightful scenery. The best gift. 

Flowery meadows. A most ingenious story. 

Mahogany furniture. The least troublesome servant. 

A more beautiful day. Webster's most eloquent speech. 

John's bay horse. The obedient, cheerful, and in- 

The worst condition. dustrious pupil. 

A good boy's mother. A man bold, sensible, sensitive, 

A large, threatening cloud. proud, and° ambitious. 

" All men." u Five dollars." 

Formula. — An adjective, and why ; the kind, and why ; to what it belongs, 
and according to what Rule. 

" A 1 1 " is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun , 
definitive, it limits or modifies the meaning of " men f and it belongs to " men," 
according to Eule X. (Eepeat it.) 

Abridged. — All is a definitive adjective, and belongs to men, according to, etc. 

"Five " is an adjective, — a word, etc. * * * numeral, and of the cardi- 
nal kind, because it expresses number and shows how many ; and it belongs to 
"dollars,' 1 '' according to Eule X. (Eepeat it.) 

Abridged. — Five is a numeral adjective, of the cardinal kind, and belongs to 
dollars, according to Eule X. 

Definitive Adjectives. 

Yonder house. These trees. Every fourth man. 

This tree. Each pupil. Those two benches. 

That barn. Such a person. The lawyer's own case 

Twelve Spartan virgins, noble, young, and° fair, 

With violet wreaths adorned their flowing hair. — Dry den. 

(a.) "A" shows that no particular " ripe melon" is meant, (o.) To be omitted in parsing. 
(6.) Say, in stead of comparison, " It can not be compared with propriety." 
4* 



Nouns. 

Formula. — A 'noun, and why ; 1 [ an( i wn y 5 collective, and why ; 

gender, and why ; person, and why ; number, and why ; case, and Rule. 

" Snow is falling." 

" Snow'''' is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is the common name of a sub- 
stance ; neuter gender, it denotes neither male nor female ; third person, it repre- 
sents an object as spoken of; singular number, it means but one ; and in the nom- 
inative case — it is the subject of the verb is falling — according to Rule I. (Repeat it.) 

Abridged*. — Snow is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third person, singu- 
lar number ; and in the nominative case to is falling, according to Rule I. 

Analysis. — Snow is falling, is a simple declarative sentence. Snow is the subject, and 
is falling is the predicate. 

Parse the articles, the adjectives, and the nouns : — 

David slew Goliath*. Jones e the saddler's wife f . 

Cattle eat grass. The duke of Wellington's* forces. 

Cats catch mice. Mr. Smith taught Ida a music a . 

In golden ringlets b . Give John h the book. 

With Sarah's pen. James the coachman' is sick. 

Edward Everett's orations. George is a gentleman 1 . 

Allen's d and Brown's store. Bancroft the historian was made 
Allen and Brown's store. chairmanJ. 

Alice k , bring your books, slate, and paper. 

The boy 1 — ! where was he ? 

My mother 111 being sick, I remained at home. 

To become 11 a scholar 111 requires mind and labor. 

The canal is 4 feet° deep, and 36 feet wide. 

To advance 11 was now utterly impossible. 

Thou shalt not stealp, is the eighth commandment. 

Sweet clime of my kindred, blest land of my birth ! 
The fairesf, the brightest, the dearest on earth ! 

(a.) " Goliath" is a noun, it is a name ; proper, it is the name of a particular person, to 
distinguish him from other persons, etc. * * * and in the objective case— it is the object of 
the verb "slew" — according to Rule IV. (b.) " Ringlets" is a noun. etc. * * * and in t : 
tire case — it is the object of the preposition In — according to Bale V. (c ) ■• Edward 
Everett's' 1 '' is a proper noun, (d.) — and in the possessive case — it limits the meaning of tford, 
understood — according to Rule III. (e ) — and in the possessive case — it limits the meaning 
of "wife" by showing whose wife she is— according to Rule III. (/)— and in the /< 
case— to agree with "Jones'"— according to Rule VII. (g.)— and in the objective case— it is 
the object of the preposition "of" — accordinsr to Rule V. (//. )— and in the objeetU 
it is the object of the preposition to, understood— according to Rule V. (/.)— and In the 
nominative case — to agree with James — according to Rnle VII. ( J.)— and In the nomina- 
tive case — to agree with "Bancroft" — according to Rule VII. (£.)— and in the nominative case 
Independent, by direct address, according to Rule II. (/.) Rule II. (m.)— and in the nom- 
inative case absolute, according to Rule II. (n.) "To become" is an infinitive, used here as a 
noun of the neuter gender, ."id person, singular number, and nominative case t<> " r, </ aires" ac- 
cording to Rule I. (a.)— and in the objective case, limiting u deep? according to Rule VI. 
(p.) Thou shalt not steal, is a clause, used here as a noun of the neuter gender, 8d p., s. n. ; 
and in the nominative case to is, according to Rule I. Parse each word. (/'.) Supply land. 

* Parsing is usually abridged, by simply omitting the reasons. 



79 



Pronoun.! 






personal, 
Formula. — A pronoun, — definition; relative, ^and why; gender, and 

interrogative, ) 
why ; person, and why ; number, and why ; case, and Rule. 

" I myself saw John and his brother." 

"/" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; personal, it is one 
of the pronouns that serve to distinguish the three grammatical persons ; of the 
common gender, it may denote either a male or a female , first person, it denotes the 
speaker ; singular number, it means but one ; and in the nominative case — it is the 
subject of the verb " saw''' 1 — according to Rule I. Nom., /; poss., my or mine, etc. 

Abridged. — /is a personal pronoun, of the common gender, first person, singu- 
lar number ; and in the nominative case to the verb saw, according to Rule I. 

'■'■Myself'' is & pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun; compound, 
it is compounded of my and self; personal, etc. * * * and in the nominative case, to 
agree with "ij" according to Rule VII. 

Abridged. — Myself is a compound personal pronoun, of the common gender, etc. 

" His" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; personal, it is 
one of the pronouns that serve to distinguish the three grammatical persons ; of 
the masculine gender, third person, and singular number, to agree with " John," 
according to Rule IX; (repeat it ;) and in the possessive case, it limits the meaning 
of "brother" according to Rule III. (Eepeat it.) 

Abridged. — His is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, 3d pers., s. n., 
to agree with John, according to Rule IX; (repeat it;) and in the possessive case, 
governed by brother, according to Rule III. 

Atcalysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is I myself; 7 is 
the subject-nominative, which is modified by the emphatic appositive myself. Saw John 
and his brother, is the entire predicate ; sate is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the 
objects John and brother, which are connected by and, and the latter of which is modified 
by his. (For Analysis, henceforth, see pp. 108-11.) 

Parse the articles, the adjectives, the nouns, and the pronouns : — 

Personal Pronouns. 

We caught him.* Art thou 1 the man 7 ? 

Albert dressed himself 944 . Martha and Mary have recited 

With me 5 . 9 their 3 lessons. 

Among themselves. A dutiful son is the delight 7 of 

Thou 2 majestic Ocean 7 . his parents. 

Ye golden clouds. John, 9 you J are wanted. 

* In these and all future parsing lessons, a number placed over a word, indicates the Kule 
to be applied to it ; and a caret ( a ) shows where words are to be supplied. 

"Read thy doom in the flowers, which fade and die." 

'■'■Which" is & pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; relative, 
its clause relates to and describes a preceding word, and is dependent; of the 
neuter gender, third person, and plural number, to agree with u flowers," according 
to Rule IX ; (repeat it ;) and in the nominative case — it is the subject of the verbs 
"fade' 1 '' and " die" — according to Rule I. 

Abeidged. — Which is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third person, 
and singular number, to agree with flowers, according to Rule IX; and in the nom- 
inative case to the webs fade and die, according to Rule I. 

" James reads what pleases him." 

" What" is a pronoun— a word that supplies the place of a noun; relative, it 
makes its clause dependent on another; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a 
male nor a female j third person, it represents an object as spoken of ; singular num~ 



80 PASSINGS 

ber, it means but one ; and it is here used as the object of " reads' 1 and the subjec* 
of "phases" — because it takes the place of that which or thing which, — according to 
Eule VIII. (Eepeat it.) 

Abbidged.— What is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third person, 
singular number; and it is here used as the object of reads, etc. 

"Nature deigns to bless whatever man will use her gifts aright." 

11 Whatever " is an adjective, — a word that qualifies or limits the meaning of a 
substantive; definitive, it limits or modifies the meaning of "man,' 1 '' and it belongs 
to " man," according to Kule X. 

" Ma n" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a generic name, etc. * * * and 
it is used here as the object of " to bless" and the subject of " v)Ul vse," — because 
the phrase whatever man, takes the place of any or every man that, — according to 
Eule VIII. 

Abridged. — Man is a common noun, of the m. g., 3d p., s. n., and is here used 
as the object, etc. 

" I do not know what he is doing." 

" What he is doing," is a clause used in the sense of a noun, of the neuter 
gender, third person, singular number ; and in the objective case — it is the object 
of " do know" — according to Eule IV. 

" What" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; relative, it 
makes its clause dependent on another; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a 
male nor a female ; third -person, it represents an object as spoken of* singular 
number, it means but one ; and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb is 
doing — according to Eule IV. 

Abbidged. — What is a responsive relative pronoun, of the n. g., 3d p., s. n.; 
and in the objective case, governed by is doing, according to Eule IV. 

Relative Pronouns. 

I saw your brother 4 , who 9&1 It was I 7 9 that lb went. 

was well. What 8 costs nothing, is w T orth 10 

She 'who 1 studies her 3 glass, nothing 9 . 

neglects her heart. Take w r hatever s you like. 

He was such a talker 9 as la We shall leave wliat is useless. 

could delight us all 10 . I am l»is 3 9 \vho lc created rae. 

(fl.) — "was such a talker as"=was a talker that, or who — . (7>.) That=who ; hence a 
relative pronoun, (c.) That is,— "his property, who created me;" or, "the property of 
him who" etc. 

" Whom did you see ?" 

" Whom" is a pronoun, — a word that takes the place of a noun ; interrogative, 
it is used to ask a question ; of the common gender, it may denote either a male or 
a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular number, it 
means but one ; and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb " did see" — 
according to Eule IV. 

Abridged. — Whom is an interrogative pronoun, of the common gender, third 
person, singular number; and in the objective case, governed by did see, etc. 

"The Gaul offered his own head to whoever should bring him 

that of Nero." " The old bird feeds her young ones." " These 
horses I received for the others." 

"Whoever" is a, pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; com- 
pound it is compounded of who and ever ; relative it makes its clause dependent on 
another; of the common gender, third person, singular number, to agree with "per- 
son," or " any person," — understood before it, — according to Eule IX; and in the 
nominative case-~-\t is the subject of the verb " should give" — according to Rule I. 

Abbidged. — Whoever is a com pound relative pron., of the c. g., 3d p., s. n., etc 



" That" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun: it is here 
used in place of " the head," and is therefore of the neuter gender, third person, 
singular number ; and in the objective case — being the object of the verb " should 
bring" — according to Eule IV. (" Ones" and " others" are parsed in a similar way.) 

Abridged. — That is a demonstrative pronoun, used here m place of the phrase 
the head, and is therefore of the n. g., .3d p., s. n. ; and in the objective case, gov- 
erned by should bring, etc. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

a Who 7 was Blennerhasset 1 ? Who 1 can tell what 7 democ- 

b Who 1 is my neighbor 7 ? racy 1 is ? 

Miscellaneous Examples. 
Your horse trots well, but mine paces. Others may be more 
intelligent, but none 1 are more amiable, than she is. Whoever 8 
gives to the poor, lends to the Lord. From their abhorrence of 
each other d . 

I hope what 8 I say will have an effect upon him, and prevent 
the impression which what 8 he says may have upon others. 
Hereditary bondsmen ! know ye not, 
Who would be free, themselves 7 must strike the blow ? 

(a.) "Who was Blennerhasset ?"=Blennerhasset was who? (&.). To apply Rule VII to 
"w7k?," would give a different meaning to the sentence, (c.) Say, " Mine''' is here used for 
"my horse.'''' My is a pronoun, etc. (Parse the two words as usual.) (d.) " Each oilier" is 
& pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; compound, it consists of two words ; 
of the com. gen., etc. (e.) '■'■Hope''' has the entire member after it as its object. (Hope what ?) 

Verbs, 
Finite Verbs. 

Formula. — A verb, and why ; principal parts ; ^t^r [ and why ; 

transitive, with voice, ) and h m mQod and wh ^ fe and , 
intransitive, or neuter, ) ? ' ' J ' ' J ' 

with form (emphatic or progressive), and why; the person and number, to agree 
with its subject , according to Eule XL 

" My father is ploughing the field which was bought last year." 

" Is ploughing" is a verb, — a word used to affirm something of a subject ; 
principal farts, — pres. plough, past ploughed, perf. part, ploughed ; regular, it as- 
sumes the ending ed ; transitive, it has an object {field), — and in the active voice, 
because it represents its subject as acting ; indicative mood, it affirms something as 
an actual occurrence or fact ; present tense, it expresses the act in present time, — 
and progressive form, it represents it as continuing ; third person and singular 
number, — to agree with its subject father, — according to Eule XL (Eepeat it.) 

Abridged. — Is ploughing is a regular transitive verb, from the verb plough ; 
(principal parts, — pres. plough, past ploughed, perf. part, ploughed ;) in the indica- 
tive mood, present tense, progressive form ; and in the third person and singular 
number, to agree with its subject father, according to Eule XL First person, I 
am ploughing ; second person, You are ploughing, etc. 

" Was bought" is a verb, — a word used to affirm something of a subject ; 
principal parts, — pres. buy, past bought, perf. part, bought; irregular, it does not 
assume the ending ed ; transitive, but in" the passive voice, because it affirms the 
act of the object acted upon ; indicative mood, it asserts something as an actual 
occurrence or fact ; past tense, it refers the act simply to past time ; third person 
and singular number, — to agree with its subject ivhich, — according to Eule XL 

Abridged. — Was bought is an ir. pass, verb, from the verb buy ; (principal 
parts, — pres. buy, past bought, perf. part, bought ; in the ind. m., past t., and c. f. ; 
and in the 3d p., s. n., to agree, etc. 



82 



Parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs : 



Regular Verbs. 
Columbus discovered America. 
John regretted his loss. 
Fortune worries men. 

Irregular Verbs. 
They struck me. 
Birds fly. It was P. 
Joseph has lost his hat. 

Transitive Verbs. 
Horses eat corn. 
The Indians shunned us. 
We armed ourselves. 

Voices. 
She broke the pitcher. 
The pitcher is broken. 
They named her 4 Mary 7 . 
She was named Mary 7 . 

Intransitive Verbs. 
Bright leaves quivered. 
Rivers flow, and winds blow. 
John will become rich. 
Horace struts a dandy 7 

Neuter Verbs. 
The rose is beautiful. 
Fierce was the conflict. 
The house stands firm 10 . 

Moods. 
Eobert sold his horse. 
Were he rich, he would be lazy. 
Can you spell "phthisic' f 
Be sincere. (Be thou sincere.) 
Man is made to mourn. 



Tenses. 

The distant hills look blue. 
Have you been sick ? 
The soldiers will be attacked. 
Your coat will have been finished. 
You must write a composition. 
We should love our neighbors. 
Did you go ? 

The apples might have been eaten. 
The lady may have been handsome. 
Had I but known it. 
Do you venture a small fish, to 
catch a great one. 

Forms. 

The tall pines are rustling. 
I do protest against it. 
Thou hast a heart of adamant. 
Persons and Numbers. 

Reckless youth makes rueful age. 

How are the mighty a fallen ! 

The Rhine and the Rhone rise b ir. 
Switzerland. 

Monday or Tuesday was c the day. 

Yonder lives a a hero and patriot. 

His family is e large. 

The multitude pursue f pleasure. 

Every house has a garden. 

Yous or he is in fault. 

You, he, and I, are invited* 1 . 

I say, be your own friend. 

To scorn meanness, is heroic. 

That weak men should seek 
strength in cunning, is natural. 



(a.) Supply men, or parse mighty as a noun, (b.) Say, — " and in the third person, plural 
number, to agree with ' Rhine and Rhone' — a plural subject, because it consists of two nomi- 
natives joined by and — according to Rule XI." See p. 42. (c.) — and in the third person, 
singular number, to agree with "Monday or Tuesday" — a singular subject, because it con- 
sists of two singular nominatives joined by or — according to Rule XI. (d.) — and in the 3d 
p., s. n., to agree with " hero and patriot"' — a singular subject, because the two words denote 
but one person — according to Rule XI. (e.) — and in the 3d p., s. n., to agree wifh its subject 
family — a collective noun that expresses the idea of unity, or presents all the objects as one 
thing — according to Rule XI. (/.) — and in the 3d p., p. n., to agree with its subject multi- 
tude, a collective noun that is plural in idea — according to Rule XI. (g.) — and in the nomi- 
native case to are, understood, according to Rule I. (/i.) — and in the 1st p., p. n., to agree 
with its subject '** You, he, and i," equivalent to We, according to Rule XI. 



Participles and Infinitives. 



Formula. 



present, 
perfect, 



_A participle, 
An infinitive, 



and why 



transitive, with voice, ) , , 

intran.sitivi or fuuter, j J ' 



and why ; vnth/orm, and why ; to what it relates, and according to 
what Eule. 



In parsing a present participle, omit form ; and in general omit of the Formulas 
whatever is not applicable. 



PARSING. 83 

" The traveler, having been robbed, was obliged to sell his horse." 

" Ha ving been robbed" is a participle, — a form of the verb, that merely 
assumes the act or state, and is generally construed like an adjective ; compound, 
it consists of three simple participles ; passive, it represents its subject as acted 
upon ; perfect in sense, it expresses the act or state as past and finished at the time 
referred to ; and it relates to " traveler," according to Eule XII. (Kepeat it.) 

Abridged. — Having been robbed is a compound, passive, perfect parti eiple, from 
the verb rob, robbed, robbed; and it relates to traveler, according to Eule XII. 

"To s ell " is an infinitive, — a form of the verb, that begins generally with to, 
and expresses no affirmation ; transitive, it has an object ; active voice, it repre- 
sents its subject as doing something ; present, it denotes the act simply ; and it re- 
lates to " traveler,' 1 ' 1 and completes the sense of " was obliged, 1 '' according to Eule XII. 

Abridged. — To sell is a transitive, active, present infinitive, from the verb sell, 
sold, selling, sold ; and it relates to traveler as its subject, and limits was obliged, 
showing as to what, according to Eule XII. 

" To betray is base." " I insist on writing the letter." 

i( To betray 1 '' is an intransitive, active, present infinitive, from the verb betray, 
"betrayed, betraying, betrayed. It is here used also as a noun of the neuter gender, 
third person, singular number ; and in the nominative case — being the subject of 
the verb is — according to Eule I. 

" Writing 1 '' is a transitive, active, present participle, from the verb write, 
wrote, written. It is here used also as a noun of the neuter gender, iliird person, 
singular number ; and in the objective case — being the object of the preposition on 
— according to Eule V. 

" It affords us pleasure to have seen the rising sun attended by 
so many beautiful clouds." 

"To have seen 11 is a transitive, active, perfect infinitive, from the verb see, 
saw, seen. It is here used also as a noun of the neuter gender, third person, singular 
number ; and in the nominative case, to agree with "It, 11 according to Eule VII. 

"Rising 11 is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a 
substantive ; participial, it is a participle — from the verb rise, rose, risen — ascribing 
the act or state to its subject as a quality ; and it belongs to " sun, 11 according to 
Eule X. 

" Attend e d 11 is a participle, — a form of the verb, that merely assumes the 
act or state, and is generally construed like an adjective ; passive, it represents its 
subject as acted upon ; perfect in form, but present in sense, for it represents the 
act or state as present and continuing at the time referred to ; and it relates to 
" sun, 11 according to Eule XII. 

Abridged. — Attended is a passive participle, from the regular verb attend, at- 
tended, attended ; it is perfect in form, but present in sense, and relates to, etc. 

J^F* The second Eule for participles and infinitives, which is given on page 71, 
can be applied to all the foregoing and all the following participles and infinitives. 



3 all except the adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections : — 
Participles. 
The Indians fled, leaving their mules tied to the bushes. 
He went trudging 3 - on foot, wearying himself, and wasting his 
time. The machinery, being oiled, runs well. The war 2 being 
ended, prosperity revived. Time and thinking tame the strong- 
est grief. Of making many books, there is no end. 

Infinitives. 

And fools, who came to scoff, b remained to pray. He is 
anxious to go. c We are never too old to learn. d The right of 
the people to instruct their representatives, is generally admitted. 



84 PARSING. 

Here was an opportunity to grow f rich. I ordered him? to be 
brought. She is wiser than to believe h it. The weather was 
such as to render* any military movement difficult. The story 
was considered so improbable as to obtain k no credit. I ought 
to have written. In order to do 1 this, 10 it was necessary to 
travel one hundred and twenty miles. 

To err 1 is human ; to forgive, divine. I forgot to tell 4 him 5 
the story. Delightful task ! to rear 7 the tender thought. To 
die, 2 — it is an awful thing. It is knowledge enough for some 
people, to know 7 how m far they can proceed in mischief with im- 
punity. 

Miscellaneous Examples. 
O silvery streamlet of the fields, that flowest full and free. 
Now May, with life and music, the blooming valley fills. 
Let Love have n eyes, and Beauty will have ears. 
It had been useless, had he done it. 
That a belle should be vain, is not to be wondered at. 
Accordingly, a company assembled 11 armed 12 and accoutred 12 , 
and, having procured 12 a field-piece, appointed 11 Major Harrison 
commander 7 , and proceeded 11 to accomplish 12 their design. 
The sun hath set in folded clouds, — 

Its twilight rays are gone ; 
And, gathered in the shades of night, 
The storm comes rolling on. 

(a.) Trudging also modifies went adverbially. See remark under Rule XII. (6.) To 
scoff relates to fools for its subject, and also limits came, (c.) To go relates to he for its sub- 
ject, and also modifies anxious, (d.) To learn relates to We for its subject, and also limits 
too old. (e.) To instruct relates to people for its subject, and also modifies right. (/.) That 
is, — " an opportunity for him or any person to grow rich". To grow relates to an indefinite 
subject, and modifies ojyportunity. In regard to rich, see Note X. (g.) Tbe phrase him to 
be brought, is the entire (or logical) object of ordered ; him is the grammatical object. To 
be brought relates to him for its subject, and it also modifies or limits ordered, (h.) To be- 
lieve relates to she for its subject, and also completes the construction of than. Or parse to 
believe as a verbal noun, the subject of is wise, understood, (t.) To render relates to weather 
for its subject, and with its modifications completes the construction, or is the complement, of 
the correlative phrase such as. Or say, if greater simplicity is desired, " To reixder relates 
to weather for its subject, and also depends on the correlative phrase such as, according to 
Rule XII." (k.) To obtain relates to story for its subject, and completes the construction, or 
is the complement, of the correlatives so and as. To obtain no credit, in this sentence, could 
also be parsed, though somewhat clumsily, as the subject of might be considered indicative of 
its improbability, understood. (I.) To do relates to an indefinite subject, and completes the 
construction of the phrase in order. In order serves, in reality, only to strengthen tin- souse 
of purpose expressed by to do ; and if so parsed, to do should be parsed as depending "it the 
predicate ivas necessary. To travel, etc., is a phrase explanatory of it; Knle VII. One hun- 
dred and twenty is a numeral adjective, (m.t How far they can proceed, etc, is the object 
of to know. Seep. S rt . (ra.) That is, " Do thou let Love (to) Inur. etc. ffoN is a transitive, 
present infinitive, without the sign to, because used alter let It relate! to Love for its sub- 
ject, and depends on Let, according to Rule XII. (o.) SubjuncUve mood. See p. 04. 

Adverbs. 

Formula. — An adverb, and whv : if it cau be compared, say bo, and how; 
of what kind; to what it belongs, ancf according to what Rule or Note. 

" The trees are waving beautifully." 
"Beaut ifu I ly" is an adverb, it modifies the meaning of a verb (" are wav- 



PARSING. 85 

ing") ; it can be compared,— pos. beautifully, comp. more beautifully, superl. most 
beautifully ; it is an adverb of manner or quality; and it belongs to tbe verb u are 
waving" according to Kule XIII. (Kepeat of the Eule as much as is applicable.) 

Abridged. — Beautifully is an adverb of manner, can be compared, modifies the 
verb are warning, and belongs to it according to Eule XIII. 

" Gather roses while they bloom." 

" Whil e " is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an ad- 
jective, or an adverb ; it is a conjunctive adverb of time; and it belongs to both the 
verb "gather" and the verb " bloom," according to Eule XIII. Or say, — 

" While''' 1 is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an ad- 
jective, or an adverb ; conjunctive, it connects its own clause to another to express 
the time, according to Note XIII. 

Abridged. — While is a conjunctive adverb of time, modifying the verbs gather 
and bloom, and belonging to them according to Eule XIII. Or say, White is a 
conjunctive adverb of time, that joins a dependent clause to another clause ad- 
verbially, or to express the time, according to Note XIII. 

" Can not you go too ?" 

" No t" is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or an adverb ; it is an adverb of negation; and it modifies the verb " can go" 
with reference to " you," and therefore belongs to them, according to Eule XIII. 
(Eepeat it.) 

Abridged. — Not is a negative adverb, modifying the verb can go with reference 
to its subject you, and therefore belonging to them, according to Eule XIII. 

Parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adverbs : — 
1. Adverbs Modifying Verbs. 
The horse galloped gracefully. My father has just come. 

The birds sung sweetly. The leaves must soon falL 

God rules everywhere. Lofty mountains successively appear. 

Mary sews and knits well. Here will I stand. 

2. Adverbs Modifying Adjectives. 

Her child was very young. He is perfectly honest. 

The music rose softly sweet. My hat is almost new. 

John is most studious. The wound was intensely painful. 

3. Adverbs Modifying Adverbs. 

Some horses can run very fast. Thomas is not very industrious. 

He stutters nearly always. The field is not entirely planted. 

You must come verv soon. She had been writing very carefully. 



Smack a went the whip, round went the wheels. 

Sadly and slowly we laid him down. 13 

In vain we seek for perfect happiness. 5 

We carved not b a line, we raised not a stone. 

He lay like a warrior taking his rest. 

You have advanced not far enough yet. 

These scenes, once so d delightful, no 13 longer please him. 

Hold up 13 the flag. When will you come ? 

The dew glitters when the sun rises. 

As a you sow, so a you shall reap. 

Study while young. He is almost f a poet. 



Even£ from the tomb the voice of nature cries. 
Not even h a philosojmer can endure the toothache patiently. 
Even' as a a miser counts his gold, 
Those hours the ancient timepiece told. — Longfellow. 
Vainly but well that 10 chief had fought, 

He was a captive 7 now ; 
Yet pride 1 that* fortune humbles not, 
Was written on his brow. — Bryant. 

(a.) Manner, (b.) "Not" limits the meaning of " carved" in respect to "a liner (c.) 
Or Rule VI. (<Z.) Degree, (e.) M While going" = While you are going. (/.) "Almost" is an 
adverb, modifying the predicate " is a poet" (g.) " Even" modifies the adverbial adjunct 
"from the tomb ;" or, rather, it modifies the verb " cries" with reference to the phrase 
"from the tomb." Adjuncts = adverbs or adjectives; hence adverbs can modify them, and 
not, as some grammarians teach, the preposition only. (See p. 60.) (h.) Always consider 
carefully on ichatthe meaning of an expression bears, and dispose of the expression accord- 
ingly. Therefore say, The adverbial expression " Not even" is used here in the sense of an 
adjective, modifying "philosopher" with reference to other subjects. (Compare with " No 
philosopher," etc.) Or else follow the parsing of "Can not you go too t" given above. Or else 
say, " Even" is an adverb modifying the entire proposition after it ; and " Not" is an adverb 
modifying the entire proposition beginning with " even." This last parsing may seem best 
to rigid disciplinarians in grammar, (i.) " Even" modifies the entire clause after it ; or, 
rather, it modifies " told" with reference to this clause of manner. 

Prepositions. 

Formula. — A preposition, — definition; between what it shows the relation; 
Kule. 

" The water flows over the dam." 

" Over" is a preposition, — a word used to govern a noun or pronoun, and 
show its relation to some other word ; it here shows the relation of "flows" to 
" dam" according to Rule XIV. (Repeat it.) 

Abridged. — Over is a preposition, showing the relation between flows and dam, 
according to Rule XIV. 

Parse all the words except the conjunctions : — 

I found a dollar in the road. In spring, the leaves come 
forth. We should not live beyond our means. He struggled, 
like a hero, against the evils of fortune. An eagle rose near 10 
the city, and flew over it far away beyond the distant hills. We 
went from New York to Washington City, by railroad, in eight 
hours. As to the policy of the measure, I shall say nothing. 
The river is washing the soil from under the tree. I caught a 
turtle in stead of a fish. 

There stood a forest on the mountain's brow, 
Which overlooked the shaded plains below 10 ; 
No sounding axe presumed those trees to bite, 
Coeval with the world, a venerable sight. 7 — Dry den. 

Conjunctions. 

Formula. — A conjunction, and why ; its peculiar nature ; what it connects ; 
Rule. 

" The meadow produces grass and flowers." 

II And" is a conjunction, — a word used to connect other words, and Bhow the 
sense in which they are connected ; it implies simply continuance, or that some- 



PARSING. 87 

thing more is added ; and it connects the words grass and flowers, according to 
Eule XV. 

Abridged. — And is a copulative conjunction, connecting grass and flowers, ac- 
cording to Eule XV. 

" You must either buy mine or sell yours." 
" Either'''' is a conjunction, a word, etc. * * * it corresponds to "or" and 
assists it in connecting two phrases according to Eule XV. 

_ " Or" is a conjunction, etc. * * * it is alternative, or allows but one of the 
things offered, to the exclusion of the rest ; it here corresponds to " either J"* and 
connects two phrases according to Eule XV. 

Parse all the words : — 

Words Connected. 

Learning refines and elevates the mind. It is our duty 7 to 
cultivate our hearts and minds. She is amiable, intelligent, and 
handsome. The silk was light-blue, or sky-colored : it should 
have been white or black. I, even 15 1 7 , went. 

Phrases Connected. 

Through floods and through forests he bounded away. 
Death saw the floweret to the desert given, 
Plucked it from earth, and planted it in heaven. 

Clauses or Sentences Connected. 

Eagles generally go alone, but little birds go in flocks. Italian 
music's sweet because 'tis dear. I know he is in debt, for he 
said so. If it rain to-morrow, we shall have to remain at home. 
Sin may give momentary pleasure, yet the pain is sure to follow. 
Again, every man is entitled to compensation for his services. 
Whether my brother come or not, I will either buy or rent the 
farm. Though he is poor, yet he is honest.. I will pardon 
you, inasmuch as you repent. He was always courteous to 
wise and gifted men ; for he knew that talents, though in pov- 
erty, are more glorious than birth or riches [are]. 
I have no mother, for she died 

When I was very young ; 
But her memory still around my heart, 
Like morning light, has hung. 

Interjections. 

Formula. — An interjection, and why ; of what kind ; Eule. 
" Alas ! no hope for me remains." 

A la s is an interjection, it expresses an emotion only, and is not connected in 
construction with any other word; it here implies grief or dejection; audit is used 
independently, according to Eule XVI. 

Abridged. — Alas is an interjection of grief ; and it is used independently, 
according to Eule XVI. 

Parse all the words : — 

O, young Lochinvar is come out of the West. Ah ! few 10 A 
shall part where many 10 A meet ! O Desdemona 3 ! Desdemona ! 

dead ? Dead ! Oh ! Oh ! oh ! (Supply art thou and thou art.) 



FALSE SYNTAX. 



12. FALSE SYNTAX. 

Nouns and Pronouns.— Rule I.— Nominatives. 

Him and me* are in the same class. You and him had a long dispute. 
Thee art most in fault. Them are my gloves. I have tasted no better 
apples than them are. Them that seek wisdom, will find it. Him I accuse, 
has entered. He whom, etc. Were you and her at the party? "Whom, 
would you suppose, stands head in our class ? He promised to employ whom- 
soever should be sent. I do not think such persons as him [is] competent to 
judge. There is no better housekeeper than her [is whom] you have dismissed. 
Did not you see it, as well as me ? He is taller than me, but I am as tall as her. 
"Who made the fire? — John and me [made it]. "Who swept tho room? — Ua 
girls. Who rode in the buggy ? — Him and Jane. 

The advice of those whom you think are hearty in the cause, must direct 
you. — Washington. A reward was offered to whomsoever would point out a 
practicable road. — Walter Scott. Truth is greater than us all — H. Mann. 
And goodly sons grew by his side, 
But none so lovely and so brave 
As him who withered in the grave. — Byron. 
* Incorrect : him and me, in the objective case, 6hould be he and J, in the nominative 
case, — to the verb are, — according to Rule 1st. (Repeat it) 



Observation. — The object of the active verb, and not that of the prepo- 
sition, should generally be made the subject of the passive verb. 

I was offered a seat.* He was offered the control of the school He was 
left a large estate by his uncle. We were shown a sweet potato that weighed 
15 pounds. You were paid a high compliment by the young lady. 

Mr. Burke was offered a very lucrative employment. — Prof. Goodrich. 

* Incorrect : not 1, but seat, should be made the nominative to was offered, according to 
the Observation under Rule 1st. (Repeat it) The sentence should be, A seat was offered me. 

Rule II.— Nominatives. 

Me* being sick, the business was neglected. nim who had led them to 
battle being killed, they retreated. Them refusing to comply, I withdrew 
And me, — what shall I do? Her being the only daughter, no expense had 
been spared in her education. Thero is no doubt of its being him. He had 
no doubt of its being me. — that it was I. 

Whose gray top shall tremble, Him descending. — Milton. 

* Incorrect: me, in the objective case, should be /, in the nominative case, — being used 
absolutely before being, — according to Rule 2d. (Repeat it, and then always state what the 
corrected sentence 6hould be.) 

Rule III.— Possessives. 

A mothers* tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for man's advan- 
tage. His misfortunes aw r aken nobody's pity, though no ones ability ever went 
farther for others good. Six months interest remained unpaid. How do you 
like Douglas' bill? I like Macaulay much better than Alison's style. He 
disobeyed his father as well as his mother's advice. Do you use Webster or 
Worcester's Dictionary ? Brown, Smith, and Jones's wife, usually went shop- 
ping together. I have no time to listen to either John or Joseph's lesson. 
He was averse to the nation involving itself in war. His father was opposed 
to him going to California. (Is it proper to write it's, her's, our's, or tiieir'st) 
His curse be on him. He, who knoweth 
Where the lightnings hide. — Mrs. Sigourney. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 89 

* Incorrect ; mothers should be mother's (with an apostrophe before the a), according to 
Rule 3d. (And state how the possessive case is properly formed.) 



Obs. 1. — The possessive sign, and the word of should be used to relieve 
each other in such a way as will make the sentence most clear and 
agreeable. 

Essex's-" death haunted the conscience of Queen Elizabeth. Socrates's life 
and death. Demosthenes' — Demosthenes's orations. Eor Herodias' sake, 
his brother Philip's wife. John's brother's wife's sister married a mechanic. 
The extent of the prerogative of the ELing of England. Daniel Boone of Ken- 
tucky's adventures. The Governor of Pennsylvania's message. He is 
Clay the great orator's youngest son. The opinionative man thinks his own 
opinions better than any one's else opinions — any one else's opinions. 

* Incorrect : Essex's death should rather be, The death of Essex, according to Obs. 1st, 
under Rule 3d, etc. 

Obs. 2. — When two or more words, taken together, denote but one 
possessor, or when the same object belongs in common to two or more 
possessors, the possessive sign is annexed but once, and to the word im- 
mediately before the word or phrase denoting what is possessed. 

These works are Cicero's, the most eloquent of men's.* Jack's the Giant- 
killer's wonderful exploits. Call at Smith's, the bookseller's. South of Ma- 
son's and Dixon's Line. Send me Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Grammar. 
Send me Pope and White's Shakespeare. Morrison's and Price's farms are the 
next two on the road. Morrison's farm and Price's are, etc. Bond's, Bush- 
nell's, and "Woodward's stores, occupy the next three buildings. It was the 
men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calamities. Allen's, Thom- 
son's, and Hardcastle's store is opposite to ours. Allen, Thomson, and Hard- 
castle's stores, are not joint possessions. 

* Incorrect : not men, but Cicero only, should have the possessive sign, according to Obs. 
2d, under Rule 3d. (Repeat it, and state what the corrected sentence should be.) 

Rule IV.— Objectives. 

Let him send you and I* to the spriog. Let thou and I the battle try. 
Having dressed hisself, he went to church. Who do you want ? Who shall 
we send? She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. He and they 
we know, but ye we do not know. Who did you mean ? Who did you see ? 
But who have we here ? They that treat me kindly, I will treat so too. He 
who is guilty, you should correct ; not I, who am innocent. 

Who should I meet the other day but my old friend ! — Addison. 

* Incorrect : I, in the nominative case, should be me, in the objective case, — being one of 
the objects of the verb send,— according to Rule 4th, etc. 

Rule V.— Objectives. 

There is some pudding left for you and I.* Who is that boy speaking to ? 
To whom, etc. Who was it sent to ? Who were you talking with ? They 
who much is given to, will have much to answer for. There was no one in 
the room, except he. I gave it to somebody ; I have forgotten who. I do 
not know who she went with. Who did he send for? — We. 

Who does he look like in that dress ? — Marlowe. 

* Incorrect : 2, in the nominative case, should be me, in the objective case, — being one of 
the objects of for, — according to Rule 5th, etc. 

Rule VII.— Same Cases. 

They slew Varus, he* that was mentioned before. They slew Varus, who 
was him that was mentioned before. It wasn't me ; it was him or her. It 



90 FALSE SYNTAX. 

was them that said so. It could not have been him. I knew it was her. 
"Whom do you think it was ? "Whom do men say that I am ? "Who do you 
take me to be? It is not me he is in love with. — not I that — Who 
was it? — Me. "Was it him, or me, that you called? Is it him whom you 
said it was? I knew it was him. I knew it to be ho. 

* Incorrect: he, in the nominative case, should be him, in the objective case, to agree 
with Varus, according to Rule 7th. (Repeat it, and state the corrected sentence, as usual.) 

Rule IX.— Pronouns. 

(Whatever makes a singular or a plural subject, makes also a singular or a 
plural antecedent. See p. 42.) 

Every person should try to improve their* mind and heart. Nobody will 
ever entrust themselves to that boat again. A person who is energetic and 
watchful, will be apt to succeed in their undertakings. Will some one of you 
lend me your umbrella ? Many a man looks back on the days of their youth, 
with melancholy regret. The generals, each in their turn, walked round the 
coffin. If you have any victuals left, we will help you eat it. I like molas- 
ses, when they are clean. The cuckoo lays his eggs in the nest of other birds. 
The hen looked very disconsolate, when it saw its whole brood rush into the 
pond. If we deprive an animal of instinct, he will be no longer able to take 
care of himself. When a bird is caught in a trap, they of course try to get out. 
Each of the sexes should keep within their proper bounds. To persecute a truly 
religious denomination, will only make them flourish the better. The people can 
not be long deceived by its demagogues. I have no interests but that of truth and 
virtue. Every herb, every flower, and every animal, shows the wisdom of Him 
who made them. One or the other must relinquish their claim. If any boy or girl 
be absent, they will have to go to the foot of the class. — he or she — Coffee 
and sugar are imported from the West Indies ; and large quantities of it are 
consumed annually. 

Each occupied their several premises, and farmed their own land. — Thos. Jef- 
ferson. — his own — It is our duty to protect this government and that flag 
from every assailant, be they whom they may. — Senator Douglas. 

* Incorrect: their should be his, to agree with person, according to Rule 9th, etc. 



Obs. a. — Who is applied to persons, and generally to personified objects. 

WJiich is applied to all objects except persons, and sometimes to 
persons in asking questions. 

That is used in speaking of both persons and things, after the super- 
lative degree, after same, after the interrogative who, or wherever who, 
which, or what, would be less proper. 

Those which* are rich, should assist the poor and helpless. So I gavo the 
reins to my horse, who knew the way much better than I did. The horso 
and rider which we saw, fell in the battle. Was it the wind, or you, who 
shut the door ? It is the best which can be got. Moses was the meekest 
man whom we read of in the Old Testament. It is the same coach which 
stopped at the church. I am the same as I was. I gave all what I had. 
I sent every thing what you ordered. Who is she who comes clothed in a 
robe of light green? Who of those ladies do you like best? Of all the 
congregations whom I ever saw, this was certainly the largest. (A congrega- 
tion is a thing rather than a person.) This lubberly boy we call Falstatf, who 
is but another name for fat and fun. The heroic souls which defended the 
Alamo. Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. 

With the return of spring came four martins, who were evidently the same 
which had been bred under those eaves the previous year. — U. S. Reader. 

* Incorrect : which should be who, according to Obs. a, under Nouns and Pronouns, etc 
(Repeat so much of the Observation as is applicable.) 



FALSE SYNTAX. 91 

Obs. b. — Nouns and pronouns should be correctly used in gender and 
number, according to the sense, and the proper form of the word. 

She is administrator.* He was married to a most beautiful Jew. The room 
is eighteen footf long, and sixteen foot wide. I measured the log with a pole 
ten foot long — with a ten -feet pole. The teamster hauled four cord of wood and 
three ton of hay, in nine hours. Several chimnies were blown down. Some of 
the first familys. Several potatos. His brother-in-laws were educated at the 
same college. The Drs. Hunters and the Misses Bartons. The Old and the 
•New Testaments — the Old and New Testament, in one large volume, called the 
Bible. You may learn the ninth and tenth page — the ninth and the tenth pages, 
and review the first or second pages. The farm is a long ways from market. 
"We encamped behind a small woods. Let us make a memoranda of it. It 
was for our sakes that Jesus died upon the cross. Few persons are contented 
with their lots. The Lee's were distinguished officers in the Revolution. 

The heathen are those people who worship idols. — Webster's Spelling-Booh. 

* Incorrect : administrator, the masculine -word, should he administratrix, the feminine, 
— for it evidently denotes a female, — according to Obs. &, under Nouns and Pronouns, etc. 
t Incorrect : foot, in the singular number, should be feet, in the plural number, to agree 
with eighteen, according to, etc. But singular in compound adjectives ; as, "A two-foot ruler." 



Obs. C. — Politeness usually requires, that the speaker shall mention the 
addressed person first, and himself last. 

I, Mary, and you,* are to go next Sunday. If James and you take the 
horses, I and Martha shall have nothing to ride. Mother said that I and you 
must stay at home. 

* Incorrect : 1, Mary, and you, should be, You, Mary, and I, according to, etc. 



Obs. d. — Nouns and pronouns should be so construed with other 
words as not to leave the case or relation uncertain or ambiguous. 

The settler here* the savage slew. (Which slew the other?) I would 
rather give her to thee than another. If the lad should leave his father, he 
would die. (Repeat the noun.) John told James that his horse had run away. 
(Yary the sentence.) Lysias promised his father, that he would never forsake his 
friends. The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who had never before 
been guilty of so unjust an action. Where there is nothing in the sense which 
requires the last sound to be elevated, a pause will be proper. Where the sense 
has nothing that requires, etc. W r hen a man kills another from malice, it is called 
murder. — the deed is called murder. This rule is not strictly true, and a 
few examples will show it. — as a few examples will show. The law is inope- 
rative, which is not right. — and that it is so, is not right. 

And thus the son the fervent sire addressed. — Pope's Homer. The lord 
can not refuse to admit the heir of his tenant upon his death ; nor can he remove 
his present tenant so long as he lives. — Blackstone. 

* Incorrect : the sentence is ambiguous. It should be, Here the eavage elew the settler,-' 
which was the meaning of the writer, — according to, etc. 

Articles. 

Obs. 1. — Articles should be chosen or omitted with great care, in order 
that the proper meaning may be expressed. 

A common noun, without an article, denotes the class generally, a part 
indefinitely, or merely the kind of thing. 

The shows that all are meant, or that a particular one or part is meant. 

A points out but one indefinitely, and implies that there are others. 



92 FALSE SYNTAX. 

A pine is a species of a tree.* The pine is a species of tree. (For how can one 
tree be a species, or a species a part of one tree !) What kind of a man is he ? 
Such a man does not deserve the name of a gentleman. The highest officer 
of a State is styled a Governor. Reason was given to a man to control his 
passions. The Tennessee, the Missouri, and the Mississippi, are all the names 
derived from the Indian languages. The whites of America are the descend- 
ants of the Europeans ; but the blacks are the descendants of the Africans, and 
the Indians are descendants of the aborig'ines. When a whole is put for 
the part, or the part for a whole ; a genus for the species, or the species for a 
genus ; a singular for a plural, or a plural for a singular, — the figure is called a 
synecdoche. Sometimes one article is improperly put for another. A pro- 
noun is a part of speech used for a noun. A violet is an emblem of modesty. 
The profligate man is seldom or never found to be the good husband, the good 
father, or the beneficent neigbor. He received only the fourth part of the 
estate. A winding stairs led us to the Senate Chamber. A flight of, etc. 
The child was not a three weeks old when it died. The Jews returned to 
their country after a seventy years captivity in Babylon. — a captivity of sev- 
enty — The ancients supposed the fire, the air, the earth, and the water, to 
be the elements of all other material things. Drunkenness makes a man of 
the brightest parts the common jest of the meanest clown. 

The original signification of knave was a boy. — Webster's Spelling-Booh. 
A librarian is the person who has charge of a library. — Id. The work is de- 
signed for persons who may think it merits a place in their libraries. — Preface 
of Murray's Grammar. The violation of this rule never fails to displease a 
reader. — Blair's Rhetoric. 

* Incorrect : pine here denotes all, or the species ; and therefore the should he used hefore 
it. Tree refers to the class generally, and therefore no article should be used before it (Re- 
peat, of the general Observation, only what is applicable to the example which you are cor- 
recting.) 



Obs. 2. — A should be used before consonant sounds. 

( ZF long, eu, w, o in. one, and y articulated with a vowel after it, have each a 
consonant sound.) 

An should be used before vowel sounds. 

(That is, before a, e, i, o, u not equivalent to yu, y articulated with a consonant 
after it, silent A, and h faintly sounded when the next syllable has the chief accent. 
See Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, pp. 173 — 81.) 

He had a interest in the affair.* It is an universal complaint. Argus is 
said to have had an hundred eyes. There was not an human being on the 
place. An African or an European. A erroneous conclusion. A adjective 
belongs to the noun which it qualifies. A humble request. Is it an t, or an 
u ? I would not use such an one. An hero. A heroic action. A hered- 
itary feud. An hyacinth. A hyper'bole. At — hotel on Broadway. 

An ubiquitous quack. — Edgar A. Poe. An useful exercise. — X. T. Teacher. 

* Incorrect: a should be an; because interest — the word immediately after it — begins 
with a vowel sound, and according to Observation 'id, under Articles, An should, etc 



Obs, 3. — When the repetition of the article would suggest more ob- 
jects than are meant, the article should be omitted. 

When the omission of the article would not suggest all the objects that 
are meant, the article should be repeated. 

The Old and the New Testaments* The Old and New Testament. There 
is another and a better world. My friend was married to a sensible and an 
amiable woman. Everett, the scholar, the statesman, and the orator, should 



FALSE SYNTAX. 93 

be invited. She is not so good a cook as a washerwoman. Fire is a better 
servant than a master. The figure is a globe, a ball, or a sphere. The white 
and black inhabitants amount to several thousands. A beautiful stream flowed 
between the old and new mansion. G-ive the possessive and the objective cases 
of who — the possessive and objective case of who. 

The sick and wounded were left at this place. — Life of Jackson. 

* Incorrect : the, repeated, improperly suggests here, that there are several Testaments, 
in stead of two ; therefore it should not have heen repeated, according to, etc. (Vary the 
formulas whenever the example requires a variaton.) 



Obs. 4. — A participial noun generally requires an article before it and 
of after it, or else the omission of both the article and the preposition. 

A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles.* Great ben- 
efit may be derived from reading of good books. It is an overvaluing ourselves, 
to reduce every thing to our own standard of judging. I shall oppose the grant- 
ing this company any more privileges. — the granting of any more privileges to — 

He left off building of Ramah, and dwelt in Tirzah. — Bible. The best busi- 
ness now is the opening farms and rearing stock. — Agricultural Journal. 

* Incorrect : showing, having the before it, should also have of after it, or else both the 
and of should he omitted, according to, etc. 

Adjectives. 

Obs. 1. — Adjectives implying number must agree, in this respect, with 
the nouns to which they belong. 

You have been playing this two hours.* How do you like those kind of 
carriages? We have been intimate friends this ten years. I never liked 
these sort of bonnets. I think that were the very words he used. 

* Incorrect : this should be these, to agree with hours, according to, etc. 



Obs. 2. — Double and all other improper comparatives or superlatives 
should be avoided. 

A farmer's life is the most happiest.* A more healthier place can not be 
found. I never before lived in a more healthier and pleasanter neighborhood. 
She is the most loveliest one of the sisters. Nothing can be more worse — 
worser. The lesser quantity I remove to the other side. I think the rose is 
the beautifullest of flowers. It was the curiousest thing I ever saw. Virtue 
confers the supremest dignity on man, and should be his chiefest desire. Cotton 
is most principally raised in the Southern States. The heath-peach is more 
preferable than the Indian peach. — is preferable to — . 

Against the envy of less happier lands. — Shakespeare. After the most 
strictest sect of our religion I lived a Pharisee. — Bible. By silence, many a 
dunderpate, like the owl, the stupidest of birds, comes to be considered the very 
type of wisdom. — Washington Irving. 

* Incorrect : happiest is itself a superlative, and most happiest would therefore be a 
double superlative, which is improper, according to, etc. 



Obs. 3. — The superlative degree must be used when three or more 
objects are compared, and the comparative is usually required when but 
two are compared. 

The largest of the two boys goes to school. The youngest of the two sis- 
ters is the handsomest. "Which is the largest number, — the minuend or the 
subtrahend? His wife is the best manager: therefore let her rule him. The 
5 



94 FALSE SYNTAX. 

latter one of the three boys had lost his books. Which do you like best, — tea 
or coffee ? 

* Incorrect: largest, in the superlative degree, should be larger, in the comparative 
degree,— because but two objects are compared, — according to, etc. 



Obs. 4. — The superlative degree represents the described object as 
being a part of the others. 

All comparisons without the superlative degree do not strictly represent 
the object denoted by one term as being a part of those denoted by the 
other. 

The word other, and similar terms, imply two distinct parts and yet but 
one class. 

China has the greatest population of any other country on earth.* Jacob 
loved Joseph more than all his children. Youth is the most important period of 
any in life. There is nothing so good for a sprain as cold water. — nothing else — 
He was less partial than any historian that ever wrote on the subject. None 
of our magazines is so interesting to me as Harper's. No other one of, etc. 

These people seemed to us the most ignorant of any we had yet seen. — 2\ r . Y. 
Herald. Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the 
flood. — Webster's Spelling- Book. (They could not have outlived themselves.) 

* Incorrect : China is here absurdly represented as being one of the countries with which 
it is compared ; therefore the greatest of should be a greater than, according to Obs. , etc. 

Verbs. 

Obs. 1 — Our own voluntary actions are expressed by will, and our con- 
tingent ones by shall ; the contingent actions of others are expressed by- 
will, and their compulsory ones by shall 

A foreigner, having fallen into the Thames, cried out, " I will be drowned ; 
nobody shall help me."* "We will have to take our coats, or we will sutfer 
from cold. "Will I find you hero when I return ? "Were I to go with you, I 
would get a whipping. Would we hear a good lecture, if wo would go? 
Whoever will catch him, will be rewarded. I was afraid I would lose my 
money. If I wished him to come, I would have to write to him. 

We will then find that this confiscation bill was impolitic ; and we will have 
to suffer for our folly, in the protraction of this war. — Crittenden. 

* Incorrect: this sentence implies that he wished to be drowned, and wanted no one to 
help him ; will should therefore be shall, and shall should be will, according to, etc 



Obs. 2. — The preterit is the proper form for affirming, without an auxil- 
iary verb, past acts or states. 

The perfect participle, and not the preterit, should be used after have, be, 
and their variations. 

I seen him yesterday.* I had saw it before. I done so. They done tho 
best they could. He has took my hat. He run all the way. They begun 
well, but ended badly. He drunk but little. They been here a whole day. 
I seen the boy when he done it. I might have went last Saturday, and ought 
to have went. The river is froze over. My coat is completely wore out. 
The tree had fell, and all its branches were broke. Tho apples were shook off 
by the wind. I knew he had wrote it ; for it was well writ. Write to him. — 
I have done wrote. — have already written. 

You have chose the worse. — Washington Irving. 

* Incorrect: seen, the perfect participle, should be saw, the preterit, according to the 
first part of Observation 2d, under Verbs, etc. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 95 

Obs. 3. — "Verbs should not be made transitive, intransitive, or passive, 
contrary to their general use, or contrary to analogy. 

He had fled his native land.* Pharaoh and his host pursued after them. 
San Francisco connects with the sea, by an entrance one mile wide. It now 
repents me that I did not go. / now repent, etc. Well, I suppose we are 
agreed on this point. We had just entered into the house. My friend is re- 
turned — is arrived. He is possessed of great talents. — -possesses — His 
estate will not allow of such extravagance. 

It must be so, for miracles are ceased. — Shakespeare. 

* Incorrect : fled is here improperly made transitive ; therefore from should be used 
after it, to express its proper relation to land, according to, etc. 



Obs. 4. — In mood and tense, the verbs of a sentence should properly 
correspond, and also be consistent with the other words. 

The indicative mood, in conditional clauses, expresses doubt only ; but 
the subjunctive mood, both doubt and future time, or mere suppositions. 

In the indicative mood, general truths must be expressed by the present 
tense. 

The perfect infinitive denotes something as past at the time referred to ; 
and the present infinitive, as present or future. 

The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away.* I know the family 
more than twenty years. I am now two years in this city. Next Christmas 
I shall be at school a year. He that was dead, sat up, and began to speak. 
The Glenn family will try and requite the favor. — try to requite — 

I wish I was at home. He talked to me as if I was a widow. If the book 
be in my library, I will send it immediately. If the book is found in my library, 
I will send it immediately. If the book was in my library, I would send it im- 
mediately. If the book were in my library, some one must have taken it. If 
these remedies be applied, and the patient improves not, the case may be con- 
sidered hopeless. 

He said it was forty miles from Baltimore to Washington. No one sus- 
pected that he was a foreigner. Our teacher told us that the air had weight. 
Plato maintained, that the Deity was the soul of the universe. A late writer on 
horses supposed, that a horse could perform the labor of six men. 

I intended to have written to him. I hoped to have met several of my 
friends there, but was disappointed. It was your duty to have assisted your 
friend; He is supposed to be born about three centuries ago. 

This was four years ago next August. — School Report. They were not 
able, as individuals, to have influenced the twentieth part of the nation. — Jeffer- 
son. The most glorious hero that ever desolated nations, might have mould- 
ered into oblivion, did not some historian take him into favor. — Irving. 

* Incorrect : the giving and the taking could not have been both at the same time ; there- 
fore hath given should be gave, etc. (Give, also, the definitions of the tenses.) 



Obs. 5. — The compound participle should not be needlessly made a part 
of a compound verb, or used to express the act in the progressive sense. 

Wheat is now being sold for a dollar a bushel. — is now selling — My 
predictions are now being fulfilled. Another church was being built in tho 
upper part of the city. My coat is now being made by the tailor. TJie tailor 
is now making, etc. His anticipations are now being realized. Dramshops 
are now being closed on Sundays. — are closed — More than 20,000 children 
are being gratuitously educated in this city. — are receiving gratuitous educa- 



96 FALSE SYNTAX. 

Hon — Such a poem is worth being committed to memory. — committing — 
"Whatever is worth being done, is worth being done welL [Magazine. 

Here certain chemical mysteries are being secretly carried on. — Harper's 
Remark. — This clumsy form is rather an innovation ; but the newspapers of 
our civil war will probably establish it. "With a little care, a better expression 
can generally be found. Verbs denoting momentary or mental acts, seldom admit 
the form. The form is used only in the present and past indicative, and in the 
past subjunctive. It is made by putting the word being into the common passive 
verb, between the auxiliary and the participle. 

Ex. (To be conjugated.) — Indic. Pees. Sing. 1. I am being defeated, 2. You 
are being defeated, 3. He is being defeated ; Plur. 1. We are being defeated, 2. 
You are beings defeated, 3. They are being defeated. Past. Sing. 1. I was being 
defeated, 2. You were being defeated, 3. He was being defeated ; Plur. 1. We 
were being defeated, 2. You were being defeated, 3. They were being defeated. 
Subjtjnc. Past. Sing. 1. If I were being defeated, 2. If you were being defeated, 
3. If he were being defeated ; Plur. 1. If we were being defeated, 2. If you were 
being defeated, 3. If they were being defeated. 

Rule XI.— Person and Number. 

I called at your house, but you was not at home. Was you there ? My 
outlays is greater than my income. f Thou heard the storm; did thou not? 
Thou shall go. I always learns my lessons, before I goes to school. There is 
ten cords of wood in the pile. Every one of the turkeys were caught by a fox. 
Every ten tens makes one hundred. Not one of us have seen your hat. 
Wheat and rye is sowed in fall; but oats is sowed in spring. Ashes are 
always used in the plural number. Tion are pronounced shun. Two parallel 
lines denotes equality. Five dimes is half a dollar. Nothing but offices are 
sought by most politicians. The molasses are excellent. What signifies fair 
words without good deeds ? Six is too many to ride in the canoe at once. Six 
months' interest are due on the bonds. The sum of twenty thousand dollars 
have been spent on the bridge. A hundred thousand dollars of revenue is in 
the treasury. The public is respectfully invited. Generation after generation 
pass away. Mary and her cousin was at our house last week. Neither 
Mary nor her cousin were at our house last week. There was hay and corn in 
plenty. How is your father and mother ? Where is your slate and pencil ? 

Such is the tales his Nubians tell, 

Who did not mind their charge too well. — Byron. 

In Mauchline there dwells six proper young belles. — Burns. 

* Incorrect: was should be were, to agree with you, according to Rule 11th, etc. t In- 
correct: is should be are, to agree with outlays, a plural subject, according to, etc. (See 
p. 42.) 



Obs. 1. — The promiscuous use of different forms of verbs in the same 
connection, is inelegant. 

He giveth, and he takes away.* — Harper's Magazine. Does he not behave 
well, and gets his lessons as well as any other boy? Did you not borrow so 
much of me, and promised to return it? To profess regard, and acting differ- 
ently, discovers a base mind. Professing regard, and to act differently, dis- 
covers a base mind. Educating is to develop the mind. Spelling is easier 
than to parse or cipher. 

Thou who didst call the Furies from the abyss, 

And round Orestes bade them howl and hiss. — Byron. 

* Incorrect: giveth should be gives, or takes should be taketh, according to, etc. 



Obs. 2. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the active verbs 






FALSE SYNTAX. 97 

bid, make, need, hear, let, see, feel, dare, and the auxiliaries ; and sometimes 
after a few other verbs that are like some of these in sense. 

If I bid you to study, dare you to be idle ? "We made her to believe it. To 
go I could not, but to remain I would not. That old miser was never seen 
give a cent to the poor. "We ought not speak ill of others, unless there is a 
necessity for it. Will you please answer my letter immediately ? 

In a few modes of expression, the to must be retained ; as, " I feel it to be my 
duty;" " I can not see to write the letter," etc. 

Adverbs. 

Obs. — Adjectives should be used to qualify nouns or pronouns; and 
adverbs, to qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. See p. 64, Exercises. 

We landed safely, after all our misfortunes.* She sews good and neat. It 
is near done. Speak slow and distinct. I am only tolerable well, sir. I 
never studied grammar ; but I can talk just as good as them that talk grammat- 
ical. Yelvet feels smoothly. I felt bad about the matter. Tou have be- 
haved very bad. I can easier raise a crop of hemp than a crop of tobacco. 
Abstract principles are best learued when clearest illustrated. 

Hindostan is a remarkable line country. — Lord Jeffrey. 

* Incorrect : safely, the adverb, qualifies we rather than landed ; and therefore it should 
be safe, the adjective, according to, etc. 

Prepositions. 

Obs. — In the use of prepositions, great care should be taken to select 
the most appropriate. 

Into, from outside to inside ; in, inside only ; at, indefinitely in or about ; in, 
definitely within ; between, two only ; among, three or more ; a taste of what is 
enjoyed, a taste for what we wish to enjoy; disappointed of what is not obtained, 
disappointed in what fails to answer our expectations after it is obtained ; die of 
disease, — by an instrument ; compare with, for ascertaining merits, — to, for illus- 
tration. 

Abhorrence of; accuse of; adapted to; agreeable to; aspire to ; capacity for ; 
confide in; dependent on; independent of; derogation from ; differ, different, 
from; difficulty in; diminution of; eager in; followed by; founded on; in- 
fluence oyer; made of; need of: occasion for; omitted from ; prejudice against; 
profit by ; quarrel with ; resemblance to ; rely on ; reconcile with ; swerve from. 

Do not let the dog come in the house.* These bonnets were brought in 
fashion last year. He died with the typhoid fever — for thirst — with the sword. 
He was accused with having acted unfairly. In some of these derivative 
words, the e is omitted. Religion and membership may differ widely with each 
other. This is a different dinner to what we had yesterday. This case has 
no resemblance with the other. I have little influence with him. He came 
of a sudden. The sultry evening was followed with a storm. The soil is 
adapted for hemp and tobacco. I have been at Trance. I board in the new 
hotel. The space between the three lines is the area of the triangle. — within — 
I was disappointed in the pleasure of meeting you. 

* Incorrect: in should be into, because the sense is not "inside only," but from "outside 
to inside," which is best expressed by into ; and according to Obs., etc. 

Miscellaneous Precepts. 

Obs. 1. — When two negatives destroy each other's effect, one should be 
omitted to express denial. 

I will never do so no more.* We didn't find nobody at home. I don't 
know nothing about your affairs. I never said nothing about it. Death 
never spared no one. She will never grow no taller. Neither you, nor no 
ono else, can walk ten miles in one hour. 



98 FALSE SYfrfAZ. 

No skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel, the terrible infection. — Goldsmith. 

* Incorrect: the two negatives, never and no, contradict each other; and therefore one 

should be omitted or changed, to express denial, or the meaning intended, according to, etc 



Obs. 2. — Adjectives, adverbs, and adjuncts, should be so placed in the 
sentence as to make it correct, clear, and elegant. 

The bad position of adjectives aud adjuncts is generally improved, by bringing 
them nearer to what they qualify ; and adverbs should generally be placed before 
the adjectives or adverbs which they modify, after verbs in the simple form, and 
between the auxiliary and the rest of the verb in the compound form ; but they 
are seldom allowable between to and the rest of the infinitive. 

I have bought a new pair of shoes and a black bolt of cloth.* The congre- 
gation will please to sing the three first and the two last stanzas of the hymn. 
The dress had rows of silk fancy green buttons. I only recited one lesson. 
(Only what ?) I only bought the horse, and not the buggy. I have bor- 
rowed this horse only, yet I intend to buy him. Men contend frequently 
about trifles. They became even grinders of knives and razors. All that we 
hear, we should not believe. They were not such as to fully answer my purpose. 
A lecture on the methods of teaching geography, at ten o'clock. Wanted — a 
young man to take care of some horses, of a religious turn of mind. At that 
time I wished somebody would hang me a thousand times. After ho had 
gained five thousand dollars, by speculation, he lost more than half of it. 

Every man can not afford to keep a coach. — Webster's Spelling-Book. An 
improper triphthong is one in which all the vowels are not sounded. — Butler. 

* Incorrect ; not the pair is new, but the shoes are so, etc. 



Obs. 3. — No needless word should be used. 

That there apple is better than this here one. He died in less than two 
hours' time. Where is William at ? I was not able for to do it. I have 
got to go. The passion of anger is the cause of many evils. John ho went, 
James he went, and Mary she went ; but the rest they all staid at home. These 
lots, if they had been sold sooner, they would have brought more money If 
these lots had been sold sooner, etc. Whatever she found, she took it with her. 
A child of ten or twelve years old. These savage people seemed to havo n<f 
other element but that of war. It is equally as good as the other. If I mis- 
take not, I think I have seen you before. Old age will prove a joyless and a 
dreary season, if we arrive at it with an unimproved or with a corrupted mind. 

Our debts and our sins are generally greater than we think for. — Franklin. 



Obs. 4. — No necessary word should be omitted. 

The sale of one farm or several will take place to-day. We were at the 
fair, and saw every thing there. Yonder is the place I saw it. Ho was a 
man had no influence. I approve your plan so far as relates to him. Why 
do what is not lawful to do ? He did it for your and my friend's welfare. 
Neither my house nor orchard is injured. Both the principal aud interest 
Money is scarce, and times hard. I never havo and never will assist such a 
man. (A part, relating to two or more before it, must suit each.) They might, 
and probably were, good. Meadows are always beautiful, but never so much 
as in the opening of spring. — so much so — The remark is worthy the fool 
that made it. There is nothing to prevent him going. White sheep are much 
more common than black. There is no situation so good anywhere. 



Obs. 5. — All the parts of a sentence should so correspond as to be con- 



FALSE SYNTAX. 99 

sistent ; and the words ana their arrangement should be the most appro- 
priate in which the meaning can be expressed. 

The wounded had laid on the ground all night. — Philadelphia Inquirer. 
After laying awhile, he raised up. We were all setting round the fire. What 
do you ask for them peaches ? Tbe business will suit any one who enjoys bad 
health. It is useless trying. — to try — No one likes being in debt. Com- 
promising conflicting opinions will be ever necessary in a republic. To compro- 
mise, etc. Such cloaks were in fashion five years since. — ago — (Since 
properly reckons forward from a past point of time ; and ago, back from present 
time. Since is daily misused.) A wicked man is not happy, be he never so 
hardened in sin. Neither our position, or the plan of attack, was known. I 
will see if it snows or no. — whether * * * or not. She is such a good 
woman. — so good a woman. The book is not as accurate as I wished it 
to be. This is none other but the gate of Paradise. — than — A corrupt 
government is nothing else but a reigning sin. A conjunction connects words, 
phrases, and sentences. There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. — no 
doubt that — There are few things so difficult but what they may be overcome. 
Cedar is not so hard but more durable than oak. — so hard as oak, but more 
durable. It is different and superior to the old. He confides and depends upon 
me. I can not find one of my books. A diphthong is where two vowels are 
united in one sound. — is the union of — (For it is not place.) A diphthong 
is when two vowels are united. Fusion is while a solid is converted into a 
liquid by heat. At the same time that men are giving their orders, God is 
also giving his. While men, etc. He drew up a petition where he too freely 
represented his own merits. — in which — The poor man who can read, and 
that has a taste for reading, can find entertainment at home. — and who — 
Policy keeps coining truth in her mints — such truth as it can tolerate ; and 
every die except its own, she breaks, and casts away. These evils were caused 
by Catiline, who, if he had been punished, the republic would not have been 
exposed to dangers so great. — the punishment of whom would have prevented 
the republic from being exposed, etc. 

The horses had scarcely crossed the bridge, than the head of the third battal- 
ion appeared on the other side. — Harper's Magazine. — when — fairest 
flower, no sooner blown but blasted ! — Milton. By intercourse with wise and 
experienced persons, who know the world, we may improve and rub off the 
rust of a private education. — Spectator. My father had just presented me with 
a knife. — N. Y. Teacher. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as 
conjunctions ; how, then, can you tell the one from the other ? — Small's Gram. 

We lay things, and then they lie ; we set things, or they sit or Jit well ; but 
we ourselves sit. Do not say hadn't ought to for ought not to ; them books, them 
cups, them boys, etc., for those books, those cups, those boys ; had have had for had 
had ; guine for going ; jist or jest for just ; sich for such ; disremember for forget. 
Do not say yourn, hern, hissen, ourn, their n, nor write your's, her's, our's, their' s, 
for yours, hers, his, ours, theirs. Do not say a great ivays, a little ways, somewheres, 
nowheres, anywheres, for a great way, a little way, somewhere, nowhere, anywhere. 
Do not say mighty little, great big, a good deal, a nation deal, in a bad fix, for 
very little, very large, much, in a bad condition. Do not say got to go for must go; 
aint for am not, is not, or are not; chaw for cliew ; a licking for a beating ; unle- 
hnown for unknown ; ary one for either one or any one ; nary one for neither one 
or no cme ; shet for shut ; to get shet of for to get rid of. Do not speak of doing 
things a heap for doing things much. Do not say the school takes up for begins ; 
nor say used up for worn out or destroyed; nor picked up for deceived; nor crocked 
up for praised or represented; nor fixed up for repaired, dressed, or ready. 



100 FALSE SYNTAX. 

Miscellaneous Examples- 

1. To say that a person is consequential, is the same thing as saying they are 
not of much consequence. — Jane Taylor. We have simply to go to work, each 
in our places, and do our work. — Sec. Chase. Marius ordered a low temple to 
be built to Honor, thereby intimating that humility was the true way to honor. — 
Lempriere. Neither of these States are entitled to bounty. — Hall. What avails 
all our toil and oa»o in amassing what we can not enjoy. — N. Y. Teacher. It 
would have been no difficult matter to have compiled a volume of such prec- 
edents. — Cowper. 

2. He is one of the preachers that belongs to the church militant, and takes 
considerable interest in politics. Every body seemed to enjoy themselves. I 
thought it to be him, but it was not him. The book is her's. Toasts were 
[drank ? or drunk f] It was such a sound that I never heard before. It is 
the same man who stood on the portico. Every thing whatsoever he could spare, 
he gave away. (Rule VIII.) There is no man knows better how to make 
money. It is more easier to pull down than to build up. There is the most 
business done in New York of any city in the Union. He is one of the most 
influential and richest men in the city. (Apparently, most richest. Change the 
order.) A large reward and pardon has been offered. 

3* The least of two evils must be preferred. — Washington. I hoped there 
would have been no further cause of uneasiness. — Id. "We have been prevented 
marching to-day by the rains. — Id. Some were employed in blowing of glass, 
others in weaving of linen. — Gibbon. We have marched eight days, laid in 
water, and ate any thing we could get. — Phil. Press. A large portion of them 
continue to secretly cherish a love for the Union. — lb. Which phrase, if it mean 
anything, means paper money. — Atlantic Monthly. Among these islanders, no 
feeling is so deep as veneration for the tombs of their ancestors. — Asiatic Inlands. 

4. She looks beautifully in her new silk dress. Tou did the work as good 
as I could expect. The offer was no sooner made but he accepted it. I would 
have been obliged to him, if he had have sent it. The three first classes havo 
recited. He has seen as much, perhaps more, of the world, than I have. (Com- 
plete the construction of the first part. — as much of * * * as I hare seen, 
and perhaps more.) He can and ought to give more attention to his business. 
The cost of the carriage was added to, and greatly increased, my expense. No 
one ever sustained such mortifications as I have done to-day. I, you, and he, 
must go. Do like I did. (As, manner ; like, generally resemblance.) 

5. The religion of Christ has taught us to look upon such crimes as were 
often committed by the Persian kings with horror and disgust. — Peter Parley. 
I shall be happy always to see my friends. — Ec Magazine. Let them the State 
defend, and he adorn. — Cowley. A proper fraction is less than 1, because it has 
less parts than it takes to make a unit. — Colburn. — fewer — Three fourths is 
more than one half — Bullions. An hospital is an asylum for the sick. — 
G. Brown. A word modifying either of the three principal parts of a sentence, 
is an adjunct. Who ever achieved any tiling great in letters, arts, or arms, 
who was not ambitious? 

6. In thee is our hope and strength. Four and two is six, and one is seven. 
No hope, no power remain. What is its person and number ? Every tree 
and steeple were blown down. Every boy's cap and coat was stolen. Books, 
and not company, occupies his mind. (Determine which is the subject, and 
make the verb agree with it.) Company, and not books, occupy his mind. 
The crown of virtue are peace and honor. His chief occupation and enjoyment 
were controversy. The father, and his son too, in the battle. The legis- 
lature have adjourned. The railroad company was rather uneasy — were 
rather unsafe. To advance or to retreat were equally dangerous. (Equally re- 
quires and.) Between him and I. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 101 

7. "Washington was given the command of a division. — Irving. The greater 
part of the forces were retired into winter-quarters. — Id. "Were Aristotle or 
Plato to come among us, they would find no contrast more complete than be- 
tween their workshops and those of New York. — Bancroft. (Supply also that.) 
The cunning of the hunter and the old buck were often stationed against one 
another. — Hall. — that of * * set * * each — It was not me that you saw. 
— Clark. John arrived as soon as me — a little earlier than me. — Id. 

8. He should not marry a woman in high life, that has no money. The 
man brought the whole package, which was more than we expected. Religion 
will afford us comfort, when others forsake us. We saw the lady while passing 
down the street. (Who passed ?) What do you think of [us ? or our ?] going 
into partnership? (See p. 44.) That very subject which we are now discuss- 
ing, was lately decided in Kentucky. (This implies nearness, or has the sense 
of latter ; that implies distance, or has the sense of former.) These very men 
with whom you traveled yesterday, are now in jail. Religion elevates man, 
irreligion degrades him ; that binds him to the earth, this raises him to heaven. 

9. The use of which accents [Greek and Roman] we have now entirely lost. 
— Blair. (We never had them to lose. Say, is lost.) Our pronunciation must 
have appeared to them [the Greeks and the Romaus] a lifeless monotony. — Id. 
(They never heard it. Say, would have appeared.) A large portion of the 
valley of the Amazon is annually overflown. — Stephens. We should like to know 
whether we will be allowed to retain our arms and flag. — K Y. Times. The 
United States having thus become the [proprietor? or proprietors ?~\ of what 
[is ? or are ?~\ called the public lands, the nation was rescued from many evils. 
—Hall. 

10. Please walk in the setting room. Whom shall I say called? "Who 
did you vote for ? I doubt if it be true. She looked as though she knew. 
— as if — Let us worship God, he who created and sustains us. Do you 
thus speak to me, I who have so often befriended you ? (Better omit I alto- 
gether.) It was to your brother, to whom I am most indebted. He insists 
on it, that he is right. I wonder that none of them never thought of it. I 
ain't got no book. A participle is a word derived from a verb, and which ex- 
presses action or being. If I bid you to study, dare you to be idle ? She 
was made believe it. This measure is taking a bold step. E has a long and 
short sound. A little flowing rivulet. Mr. John Dorriss, Esq. (The latter 
title supersedes the former.) The neck connects the head and trunk together. 
Said client believes said judge prejudiced to his cause. My brother's being 
sick was the cause of his absence. My brother's sickness was, etc. The ver- 
mins were so numerous that we could raise no fowl. I live to home with my 
mother. (Error common in New Tork and New England.) 

Disputed. — "To-morrow will be Saturday." Correct. "To-morrow is Satur- 
day." Allowable ; mere predication. Sometimes also the present tense is used 
to express future events more vividly. "I feel [oad? or badly?] about the mat- 
ter." Analogy is in favor of bad ; but custom is in favor of badly. See Kerfs 
Comp. Gram., p. 248. " On page twenty -fifth." Correct. " On page twenty- 
five." Allowable. 25 is here a noun, representing, by synecdoche, page, and 
put in apposition with it. Compare with "The year 1862." In discussing a 
subject by numerical divisions, whether we should say, " First, secondly, thirdly," 
etc., or, " First, second, third," etc., will depend on the sense, or whether we 
refer to the verb or the divisions. "A hotel" — Xoah ]Yebster ; "An hotel" — 
Russell, Kinglake, and English writers generally. " Our forces were to have 
advanced last Tuesday." Generally condemned ; but it means, they did not 
advance. "Our forces were to advance last Tuesday." And perhaps they did 
advance; we have no news from them as yet. "I would rather be in his place." 
Correct. " I had rather be in his place." Good old English, and allowable col- 
loquial modern English. See p. 36 ; also Cowper's Works. 
5* 



102 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

la ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Discourse is a general word denoting either ])rose or poetry. 

Discourse ma} 7 be divided into paragraphs. 

Paragraphs are composed of sentences. 

All sentences may be resolved into propositions. 

Every proposition must have a subject and a predicate. 

Every subject must be a nominative, or have a nominative. 

Every predicate must be a finite verb, or have a finite verb. 

Sentences are divided into simple, complex, and confound. 

A simple sentence has but one predicate. 

A complex or compound sentence has two or more predicates. 

A complex sentence must have at least one proposition that is de- 
pendent, or that is used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an 
adverb. 

A compound sentence must have at least two propositions of which 
neither is dependent, or used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or 
an adverb. 

A compound sentence may consist of complex sentences or mem- 
bers. 

Exercises. 

Tell whether the sentence is simple, complex, or compound, and why ; mention 
the propositions or clauses, and why ; mention the subjects and the predicates, and 
why ; and ivhether simple or compound, and why : — 

The flowers are gemmed with dew. The maple on the hill-side has lost its 
bright green, and its leaves have the hue of gold. As you come near, they 
spring up, fly a little distance, and light again, f Suspicion ever haunts ttM 
guilty mind. Hard things become easy by use; and skill is gained by little 
and little. The weight of years has bent him, and the winter of age rests upon 
his head. He touched his harp, and nations heard entranced. The union is 
the vital sap of the tree; if we reject the Constitution, we girdle the tree; ita 
leaves will wither, its branches drop off, and the mouldering trunk will be torn 
down by the tempest. The good times, when the farmer entertained tho 
traveler without pay; when he invited him to tarry, and join in the chase; 
when Christmas and Fourth of July were seasons of general festivity, — have 
passed away. % "Thy worldly hopes," said the hermit, '-shall have faded, thy 
castles of ambition crumbled, and thy fiery passions subdued, ero thou hast 
reached the meridian of life." § Read this Declaration at the head of the army, 
— every sword will be drawn from its scabbard, and tho solemn vow uttered, "to 
maintain it, or to perish on the bed of honor. (Construe both the infinitive phrases 
with each of the two clauses just before them in the same member.) "What 

* A sentence is merely bo much of discourse as makes a complete thought in the view of 
the person uttering it; a proposition is a single combination of 6uch words as make a predi- 
cation, judgment, or thought ; and & phrase is merely two or more words rightly put together 
for thought, without expressing a predication, t When ? % What kind of times ? § Slid what ? 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 103 

costs nothing 1 ; is worth nothing. That he must fail, is certain. 'Tis liberty 
alone that gives the flowers of fleeting life their lustre and perfume. Go, and 
assist him, that the work may be finished. He who is false to God, is not true 
to man. Though thy slumbers may be deep, yet thy spirit shall not sleep ; 
there are shades that will not vanish, there are thoughts thou canst not banish. 
To dress, to visit, to gossip, and to thrum her piano, are the chief employments 
of the modern belle. 



Every proposition is either declarative, interrogative, imperative, 
or exclamatory. Every sentence is the same, or a composite of these. 

A declarative proposition expresses a declaration ; an interroga- 
tive proposition, a question ; an imperative proposition, a command ; 
and an exclamatory proposition, an exclamation. 

Ex. — "John rides that wild horse." "Does John ride that wild horse?" 
" John, ride that wild horse." "John rides that wild horse!" An exclamatory 
sentence is merely a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence, ut- 
tered chiefly to express the emotion of the speaker. 

Exercises. 

The propositions ; and whether declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclama- 
tory, and why : — 

A waving willow was bending over the fountain. Rise, and defend thyself 
Shall I assist you ? How beautiful is yonder sunset ! If James has a hun- 
dred marbles, why does he never show us any of them ? Men may, I find, be 
honest, though they differ. Now Twilight lets her curtain down, and pins it 
with a star. Green be the turf above thee, friend of my better days. What 
shall I say ? What a piece of work is man ! She is busy in the garden, 
among the posies. The spreading orange waves a load of gold. Hear him ! 
hear him ! There can be no study without time ; and the mind must abide, and 
dwell upon things, or be always a stranger to the inside of them. The fly sat 
upon the axle-tree of the chariot- wheel, and said, "What a dust do I raise I" 



Every proposition is either independent or dependent. 

An independent proposition makes complete sense by itself. 

A dependent proposition depends on another for complete sense. 

The clause of a complex sentence on which the other clauses depend, is often 
called the principal or leading clause; its subject and predicate, the principal or 
leading subject and predicate / and the dependent clauses, subordinate clauses. 

Exercises. 

The propositions • and whether independent or dependent, and why : — 

The morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. The dew glistens, when the 
eun rises. I would not enter, on my list of friends, the man who needlessly seta 
foot upon a worm. Stillest streams oft water fairest meadows ; and the bird 
that flutters least, is longest on the wing. The path of sorrow leads to the land 
where sorrow is unknown. If the mind be curbed and humbled too much in 
children r -if their spirits be abased and broken much by too strict a hand over 
them, — they lose all their vigor and industry, Come ye in peace here, or come 
ye in war ? In one place we saw a gang of sixty-five horses ; but the buffaloes 
seemed absolutely to cover the ground. "Come," says Puss, "without any 
more ado ; 'tis time to go to breakfast: cats don't live upon dialogues." 



104 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Every proposition may be divided into the entire subject and the 
entire predicate. 

The entire subject must have one or more subject-nominatives to 
the same verb or verbs. 

The entire predicate must have one or more finite verbs agreeing 
with the same subject, which may be called the predicate-verbs. 

Hence both subjects and predicates arc either simple or compound. 

The subject-nominative may be a word, a phrase, or an entire clause ; the predi- 
cate-verb is simply a verb, or a principal verb with its auxiliaries. 

Most grammarians call the entire subject the logical subject; the entire predi- 
cate, the logical predicate ; the subject-nominative, the grammatical subject ; ami 
the predicate-verb, the grammatical predicate. This mode of naming is not so 
simple as the one we have given. 

Exercise s. 

The propositions ; the entire subjects, and then the subject-nominatives ; the entire 
' f, and then the predicate-verbs : — 



Men work. Most men work daily. The leaves rustle. The leaves rustle 
in the passing breeze. Leaves and flowers must perish. Flowers bloom and 
fade. Leaves and flowers nourish and decay. Poplars and alders ever quiv- 
ering played, and nodding cypress formed a fragrant shade. In youth alone, 
unhappy mortals live ; but, ah ! the mighty gift is fugitive. The same errors 
run through all families in which there is wealth enough to afford that their 
sons may be good for nothing. Depart. In concert act, like modern friends, 
since one can serve the other's ends. That it is our duty to be kind and 
obliging, admits of no doubt. The division and quavering which please so 
much in music, have a resemblance to the glittering of light, as when the moon- 
beams play upon the water. It is often the fault of parents, guardians, and 
teachers, that so many persons miscarry. (Here either "It" or the clause " that 
so many," etc., may be considered the subject of "is," and the other term may 
be parsed as agreeing with the subject in case.) It is hardly practicable for the 
human mind to obtain a clear and familiar knowledge of an art, without illustra- 
tions and exemplifications. Ah me 1 the blooming pride of May, and that of 
beauty, are but one. 



The parts into which sentences are divided in analysis, are called 
elements. Subject-nominatives and predicate-verbs are the principal 
elements ; and they may be modified by ivords, ]Jhrase3, or clauses. 

A part that modifies another, adds something to its meaning, or takes away 
something. 

What modifies, is either explanatory or restrictive. 
Ex. — " The town lay at the foot of a hill, which we climbed.'''' " The town lay at 
(he foot of the hill which ice climbed." 

Whatever modifies a substantive, is an adjective element. 

Ex. — " Solomons Temple." What temple \ " David, the king and psalmist." 
What David ? " The land of palms:'' What land? "A hill crowned with ma- 
jestic trees.'''' What kind of hill ? "A proposition to sell the farm." What pro- 
position ? " The store which is on the corner.'''' What store i " A request thatyou 
will go with us." What kind of request ? 

What modifies, may itself be modified. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 105 

A noun may be modified — 

1. By an article. " The man is intelligent." 

2. By an adjective. "A beautiful ROSE;" "A ROSE, red and "beautiful." 

3. By a possessive. " John's ' horse ; " "My slate." 

4. By an appos'itive- "John the saddler ;" "The poet Milton." 

5. By a participle, with what belongs to it. " A law relating to taxes" 

6. By an infinitive, with what belongs to it. "A path to guide us." 
T. By an adjunct. " A man of wisdom." 

8. By a clause. " The willow which stands by the spring;" " A request tfiezi 
you loill go with us tomorrow" 

A pronoun may be modified in the same ways, except not by a possessive. 
A modified word has frequently several modifications at once. 

Exercises. 

The nouns and pronouns, and by what they are modified : — 

A dewy rose. The land of oranges. Lurking evils. Evils lurking near. 
Evils that lurk near. A house situated on the river. An opportunity to 
study. The sen's beams. Milton the poet. The deer which ran out of the 
field, and which I shot. A bright morning, fresh and balmy, that refreshed us 
all. The calumet was produced, and the two forlorn powers smoked eternal 
friendship between themselves, and vengeance upon their common spoilers, the 
Crows. The silence of the night ; the calmness of the sea ; the lambent radi- 
ance of the moon, trembling on the surface of the waves ; and the deep azure of 
the sky, spangled with a thousand stars. — concurred to heighten the beauty of 
the scene. "With loss of Eden, till one greater man restore us, and regain the 
blissful seat. Numerous small lakes lie inland, round which, on beaten trails, 
roam herds of red deer. Sweet day, so#cool, so calm, so bright, the bridal of 
the earth and sky. 



"Whatever modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, or may be 
given in answer to an interrogative adverb, or as the complement of 
a predicate, is an adverbial element. 

Ex. — "The house was sold yesterday." "When? "The house contains much 
furniture.' 1 '' Contains what? " The house was a mere cabin." Was what ? " The 
horse fell, crushing its inmates." Fell how ? " The house was sold to pay the 
wmer's debts." Why ? " The house was sold because the owner was in debt" Why ? 

A. modified verb may be a finite verb, a participle, or an infinitive. 

A verb may be modified — 

1. By an objective. "Men build houses." " I knew it to be him. 11 

2. By a predicate-nominative. " John has become a farmer." 

3. By an adjective. "To be wise ;" " James is idle."* 

4. By an adverb. " The horse ran fast." 

5. By a participle-\-. " The stone rolled thundering down the hill." 

6. By an infinitive-\-. " I have concluded to remain with you." 

* Owing to a slight radical difference in the modes of classifying, there is sometimes an 
apparent incongruity between Parsing and Analysis. Thus, in parsing, idle is referred to 
James, because James denotes the object to which the quality belongs; but, in analyzing, 
It is referred to is, because it makes with is the predicate. 



106 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

7. By an adjunct. " Apples GROW on trees." 

8. By a clause. " She thinks he is rich;" "He studies tlvat he may learn." 

Exercises. 

The verbs, and by what modified : — 

A light beaming brightly. He writes with ease. Cast not pearls before 
swine. He became a partner. She is industrious. I intend to go. I be- 
lieve he will succeed when he makes a vigorous effort. Among the flowering 
vines is one deserving of particular notice. Each flower is composed of six 
leaves about three inches in length, of beautiful crimson, the inside spotted with 
white. Its leaves of fine green are oval, and disposed by threes. This plant 
grows upon the trees without attaching itself to them. "When it has reached the 
topmost branches, it descends perpendicularly, and, as it continues to grow, ex- 
tends from tree to tree, until its various stalks interlace the grove like the rig- 
ging of a stiip. Nature from the storm shines out afresh. Not even a philoso- 
pher can endure the toothache patiently. There never yet were hearts or 
skies, clouds might not wander through. Chaucer said, " If a man's soul is in 
bis pocket, he should be punished there." 



An adjective may be modified — 

1. By an adverb. " She is foolishly proud." 

2. By an infinitive. " The fruit is GOOD to eat." 

3. By an adjunct. " He is careful of his books." 

Exercises. 

The adjectives, and by what modifieah — 

She was uncommonly beautiful. He is poor in money, but rich in knowl- 
edge. Be quick to hear, but slow to speak. The visions of my youth are 
past — too bright, too beautiful to last. How dear to my heart are the scenes of 
my childhood ! That father, faint in death below, his voice no longer heard. 
Wise in council and brave in war, he soon became the most successful leader. 



An adverb may be modified — 

1. By an adverb. u The horse ran very fast." 

2. By an adjunct. " He has acted inconsistently with his professions." 

Exercises. 

The adverbs, and by what modified : — 

It is very badly done. She studies most diligently. You can not come 
too soon. He has written agreeably to your directions. 



When a dependent clause is abridged into a phrase, having a 
nominative absolute, the phrase retains the modifying sense of the 
clause. 

Some grammarians call such also independent phrases, though perhaps need- 
lessly. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 107 

Exercises. 

and what they modify : — 
My trunk being packed, I sent for a carriage. (Sent why or when ?) The 
suu having set, we returned home. His father having been imprisoned, he went 
to rescue him. Along he sauntered, his musing fancies absorbing his whole soul. 



Nominatives independent, or the phrases containing them, and 
interjections, are independent elements. 

Exercises 

Point out the independent words or phrases : — 

Liberty ! can man resign thee, once having felt thy glorious flame ! "Weep 
on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of Inistore! Milan! the golden bells 
which oft at eve so sweetly tolled ! Alas, alas ! fair Ines, she's gone into the 
"West. The land of the heart is the land of the "West ; oho boys ! oho boys 1 
olio ! Hist, Romeo, hist ! My stars ! what a fish ! Ha, ha, ha ! a fine 
gentleman, truly. 

Connecting words are conjunctions, prepositions, relative pronouns, 
and some adverbs. Sometimes phrases. 

Sometimes connectives are omitted, or the connection is sufficiently 
obvious by the position of the parts. 

Exercises, 

Point out the connectives, tell of what kind, and ivhat they connect : — 
The sun has set, and the moon and stars begin to appear. He took the horse, 
which was neither his nor mine "When I behold a fashionable table set out, I 
fancy that gouts, fevers, and lethargies, lie in ambush among the dishes. He 
that knows not how to suffer, has no greatness of soul. Though deep, yet clear ; 
though gentle, yet not dull. The moment I touched it, down it fell. The 
deeper the water, the smoother it flows. (Connected by the correlative sense of 
the clauses.) To be happy is not only to be free from the pains and diseases 
of the body, but also from the cares and diseases of the mind. 

"Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing ; 

'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands : 

But he who filches from me my good name, 

Robs me of that which not enriches him, 

And makes me poor indeed ! 

Propositions are sometimes elliptical or inverted. 
Exercises, 

Point out the elliptical parts, supply the omitted words, and restore the logical ar~ 
rangement : — 

And jokes went round, and careless chat. No mate, no comrade. Lucy 
knew. Oh, how damp, and dark, and cold! "Then, why don't you go," 
said I. Pride costs us more than hunger, thirst, and cold. The woman 
(strange circumstance !) remained obstinately silent. Out of debt, out of dan- 
ger. On the cool and shady hills, coffee-shrubs and tamarinds grow. Alas for 
love, if thou wert all, and naught beyond, earth ! Of all the thousand stirs 
not one. " Sir, I can not. — What, my lord? — Make you a better answer." 

Sentences, propositions, and phrases, may be analyzed according 
to the following 



108 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Formulas. 

A sentence, and why ; simple, complex, or compound, and why ; declarative, inter- 
rogative, imperative, exclamatory, or a composite of, and why. 

. a phrase; the chief word . modifind hv 

1 an independent phrase ; the independent substantive • ' 

— is the entire J*^ the $&£!£*" *—> -dined b y _. 

— is the entire **£& . the J^^^Sf^ are-, connected by-, and modified b^ 

ANALYSIS EXEMPLIFIED. 
Simple Sentences Analyzed. 

" Sin degrades." 

This is a sentence, it is a thought expressed by words ; simple, it contains but 
one proposition ; declarative, it expresses a declaration. 

Sin is the subject, because it denotes that of which something is affirmed ; and 
degrades is the predicate, because it denotes what is affirmed of sin. Sin is also the 
subject-nominative ; and degrades, the predicate-verb. 



" My friend, were these houses and lands purchased and improved 
by our old senator, David 'Barton ?" 

This is a sentence, it is a collection of words making complete sense ; simple, it 
contains but one proposition, or but one subject and one predicate ; interrogative, 
it asks a question. 

My friend is an independent phrase, because it has no grammatical connection 
with the rest of the sentence. Friend is the principal word, and it is modified or 
limited by the possessive My. 

The phrase these houses and lands, is the subject, because it denotes that of which 
something is affirmed. 

The phrase were purchased and improved by our old senator, David Barton, is the 
predicate, because it denotes what is affirmed of the subject. 

Bouses and lands are the subject-nominatives, connected by the word and, and 
modified by the adjective these. 

Were purchased and [were] improved are the predicate-verbs, connected by and 
and modified by the phrase by our old senator, David Barton. Our old senator is 
modified by David Barton; old senator is fnodified or limited by the possessive 
our ; and senator is modified by old. 

Or thus : Was is the copula ; purchased and improved are the attributives, modi- 
fied by (as before). 

Compound Sentences Analyzed. 

<: A man who saves the fragments of time, will accomplish much 
in the course of his life." 

This is a sentence,*- it is a thought expressed by words, and comprised between 
two full pauses ; complex, it contains two propositions, of which one depends on the 
other, or is used in the sense of an adjective ; declarative, it expresses a declaration. 

A man who saves the fragments of time, is the entire principal subject, be- 
cause it denotes that of which something is affirmed ; and will accomplish much 
in the course of Ms life, is the entire predicate, because it denotes what is a*- 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



109 



firmed of the subject. Man is the subject-nominative ; and it is modified by the 
article A, and the clause who saves the fragments of time : will accomplish is the 
predicate-verb, and is modified by the object much and the adjunct in the course of 
his life. 

Who saves the fragments of time, is a proposition connected to man, by the rela- 
tive who, as a subordinate clause performing the office of an adjective. 

Who is the entire subject and the subject-nominative : saves the fragments 'of 
time, is the entire predicate ; saves is the predicate-verb, and is modified by its ob- 
ject fragments, which is itself modified by the article the and the adjunct of time. 



" What pleases the palate, is not always good for the constitu- 
tion." 

This is a sentence, it is a collection of words making complete sense ; complex, it 
contains two propositions, one of which is dependent on the other ; declarative, it 
expresses a declaration. 

What is equivalent to that which. What, or that which, pleases the palate, is the 
entire principal subject ; and is not always good for the constitution, is the entire 
predicate. That is the subject-nominative, and is modified by the clause which 
pleases the palate ; is is the predicate- verb, and is modified by the adjective good, 
which is itself modified by the adjunct for the constitution and the adverb always, 
and always is modified by the adverb not. 

Which pleases the palate, is a proposition connected to that, by the relative which, 
as a subordinate clause performing the office of an adjective. 

Which is the entire subject and the subject-nominative ; pleases the palate, is the 
entire predicate ; pleases is the predicate-verb, modified by the object palate, which 
is itself modified by the. 

[" Who were the robbers of the house, has not yet been ascer- 
tained." 

This is a complex declarative sentence, having the incorporated clause, Who were 
the rollers of the house, as the entire subject and the subject-nominative. Has not 
yet leen ascertained, is the entire predicate, etc. 

Who were the rollers of the house, is a subordinate clause incorporated into the 
sentence as a substantive in the nominative case. Who is the entire subject and 
the subject-nominative, etc.] 

" My son, if thou wouldst receive my words, and hide my com- 
mandments with thee, so that thou mayst gain wisdom; yea, if thou 
wouldst seek it as silver, and search for it as hidden treasure, — then 
live in the fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God." 

This is a sentence, it is a collection of words making complete sense ; complex, 
it consists of several propositions, some of which are dependent ; a composite of 
declarative, or conditional declarative, and imperative clauses, or rather an imperative 
sentence, for its chief aim is to express a command or an exhortation. 
" My son," — 

This is an independent phrase, because it has no grammatical connection with 
the rest of the sentence, etc. (Proceed as before.) 

" If thou wouldst receive my words, and hide my commandments tvith thee," — 



110 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 

This is a proposition connected as a dependent clause, by the conjunction if, to 
the last clause of the sentence, etc. (Analyze these clauses in the same way as the 
clauses and sentences above -were analyzed. ) 

" So that thou mayst gain wisdom ;" — 
This is a clause dependent on the clause preceding it, to which it is connected 
by so tJutt, etc. 
" Tea, if thou wouldst seek it as silver, and search for it as hidden treasure ;" — 
This is a clause coordinate with the member preceding it, to which it is con- 
nected by the emphatic yea; and dependent on the last clause of the sentence, to 
which it is connected by if. 

" As silver, 11 — " As for hidden treasure ;" — 

As silver is put for as you would seek for silver, and is therefore a clause con- 
nected to the preceding predicate by as as a subordinate clause, performing the 
office of an adverb of manner, etc. 

11 Then live in the fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God." 
This is the principal or independent clause, connected by then to the rest of the 
sentence. Thou, understood, is the entire subject and the subject-nominative, etc. 



Note. — Long sentences are generally most easily analyzed, by commencing at 
the beginning of the sentence, and taking not more than one clause, independent 
word or phrase, at a time, and proceeding thus until the entire sentence is ex- 
hausted. It is generally better to defer dependent clauses, till their principal 
clauses are analyzed. 

" There is strong reason to suspect that some able Whig poli- 
ticians, who thought it dangerous to relax, at that moment, the 
laws against political offences, but who could not, without incur- 
ring the charge of inconsistency, declare themselves adverse to 
relaxation, had conceived a hope that they might, by fomenting the 
dispute about the court of the lord high steward, defer for at least a 
year the passing of a bill which they disliked, and yet could not 
decently oppose." — 3Iacaulay. 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. There is strong reaton fo 
suspect, is the principal clause, of which strong reason to suspect, is the entire sub- 
ject ; and There is, the entire predicate ; reason is the subject-nominative, modified 
by the adjective strong, and by the infinitive to suspect performing the office of an 
adjective ; is is the predicate-verb, modified by Tliere. 

That some able Whig politicians had conceived a hope, is the next simple declara- 
tive clause, performing the office of a noun in the objective case governed by 
to suspect, to which it is connected by that. Some able Whig politicians, is the entire 
subject ; and had conceived a hope, is the entire predicate : politicians is the Btlbject- 
nominative, modified by the adjectives some, able, and Whig ; and /. 
the predicate-verb, modified by the object hope, which is itself modified by the 
article a. 

Who thought it dangerous, etc., (read to but,) is a subordinate relative clause, 
connected to politicians by who, and performing the office of an adjective. Who is 
the entire subject and subject-nominative ; thought it dangerous etc., is the entire 
predicate, of which thought is the predicate- verb, modified by the object it, which is 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Ill 

modified by dangerous, and the appositive to relax, etc., of which to relax is modi- 
fied by the adjunct at that moment, an adverbial element whose principal word is 
moment, modified by that, and connected to the verb by at; to relax is further modi- 
fied by the object the laws, and laws is modified by the adjunct against political 
offences, performing the office of an adjective. 

But ivho could not, without, etc. (read to had), is a relative clause also modifying 
'politicians, and connected as a coordinate clause to the clause before it, by the 
adversative conjunction but. Who is the entire subject and the suoject-nominative ; 
could not, without incurring, etc., is the entire predicate, of which could declare is 
the predicate-verb, modified by the negative adverb not, the adverbial adjunct 
without incurring the charge of inconsistency, the object themselves, which is modi- 
fied by the adjective adverse, and adverse is modified by the adverbial adjunct to 
relaxation. 

That they might, etc. (to which), is the next simple clause, — dependent, con- 
nected to hope by that, and performing the office of an adjective. TJtey is the entire 
subject and the subject-nominative ; might defer, etc., is the entire predicate, of 
which might defer is the predicate-verb, modified by the adverbial elements by fo- 
menting the dispute about the court of the lord high steward (means), for a year (time), 
and the objective element the passing of a bill ; fomenting is joined to might defer 
by by and modified by dispute, dispute is modified by the and about the court, court 
is joined to dispute by about and modified by the and of the lord high steward, lord 
is joined to court by of and modified by the and the appositive high steward ; for a 
year is modified by the adverbial phrase at least ; passing is modified by the and 
the adjunct of a bill. 

Which they disliked, etc. (to the end), is a relative clause, — declarative, depend- 
ent, connected to bill by which, and performing the office of an adjective. They is 
the entire subject and the subject-nominative, disliked and could oppose are the 
predicate-verbs, connected by and yet, and modified, both, by the objective which, 
and the latter verb by the adverb decently, which is itself modified by the nega- 
tive adverb not. 

The sentence consists of six clauses, very finely bound together, of which the 
subject of the principal clause is branched out into a cluster of dependent clauses. 
— The student will seldom find a sentence more difficult to analyze. 



Paragraphs or sentences may be briefly analyzed by simply 
pointing out the clauses or propositions in their logical order. 
Parsing, also, may be much, abridged. 

Ex. " Man hath his daily work of body or mind 

Appointed, which declares his dignity, 
Ana the regard of Heaven on all his ways ; 
"While other animals inactive range, 
And of their doings God takes no account." — Milton. 
Man hath his daily work of body or mind appointed. 
Which declares his dignity, and the regard of Heaven on all his ways. 
While other animals range inactive. 
And God takes no account of their doings. 
Man is a common noun, in the nominative case to hath ; hath is an irregular 
transitive verb agreeing with Man ; his is a personal pronoun, relating to Man as 
its antecedent, and possessing work, etc. 

J&3» For exercises, use the phrases and sentences on pp. 73—87, and the poem on p. 131 ; and, of ex- 
amples to be written on the blackboard and analyzed, the teacher will find an abundance in U>e Com- 
prehensive Grammar. 



112 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

THOUGHT AND ITS EXPRESSION* 

"We think, or have thoughts. 

"We wish to express our thoughts, or to let other people know them. 

"We therefore put them into words, and speak or write them. 

Every thought implies at least two things; something to think of, and some- 
thing thought of it. 

The former we denote by a subject ; the latter, by a predicate. 

We notice, in the world, objects, actions, and qualities, nearly all of wluch 
exist in classes, and some in degrees. 

"We notice the thing called time, and the thing called space, which two hold 
or contain all other things whatsoever. 

In the operations of things, we notice manner, cause, consequence. 

We also notice, chiefly in ourselves, feeling, will, knowledge, ignorance. 

Some of these things must be found in every thought ; and they are all expressed 
by a great variety of words, phrases, and clauses. 

The subject or the predicate, while it refers to the same class, may often be 
denoted by a single word. (Simple subject or predicate.) 

Ex. — " She sings ;" " They sing." " Man errs ;" " Men err." 

"When either refers to two or more classes, two or more words must be used 
to express it. (Compound subject or predicate.) 

Ex. — " The rose or the lily \ blooms and fades." 1 "Roses and lilies \ bloom and /ode." 

To denote what is only an occasional act or state, we must also frequently 
use several words to express it. 

Ex.— "That they should have endeavored to crush eo great a genius, is surprising." 
" The panther gnashed his fangs in blood and foam." 

Within the same class we generally make the same word answer all our purposes, but we 
sometimes vary its form ; as, Mill, mills; I, we ; write, writest ; great, greater. This change 
is called inflection. When we pass out of the class to a related class, we frequently still re- 
tain the word, but with a slight change; as, Mill, miller; write, writer; blue, dark-blue. 
This change is called derivation. 

As there are many of almost every class, yet as scarcely any two have the same 
place, time, or qualities, we often add these, to show precisely what object, act, 
or state we mean. These added things are called qualities or circumstances ; and 
the words, phrases, or clauses, denoting them, may be called modification*. 

Hence, we may distinguish unmodified subject-nominatives and predicate-verbs 
from modified. Either class may be simple or compound. 

Ex. — " Soldiers were marching." " The young soldiers of New York who enliBted 
last year, were marching, this morning, in magnificent array, to the Battery.' 1 

"When some form of the verb be is the predicate-verb, the predicate is some- 
times analyzed into copula and attribute, or into copula, attribute, and modifi- 
cations. 

Ex — " The sky is serene." " David was king." " Grain, meat, and vege- 
tables are brought daily down the river." 

The proposition may vary according to the speaker's relations to what the 
subject denotes. These are the Persons; the first, the second, and tho third. 
Ex. — " I am speaking." " Thou art speaking." M lie is speaking." 

The proposition may vary according as we consider one or more than one of 
the same class. This variation lies in the Numbers. 

Ex.—" I am speaking ;" " We are speaking." " The squirrel climbs trees ;" " Squir- 
rels climb trees." 

* This section is to be studied rather than memorized. It aims to give an insido view 
of thought and language, — to show the outbranchings of language from the germ of thought 
within, or the connection between the mind and the outer world with special reference to 
Grammar. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 113 

The proposition may vary according as one class is referred to or more than 
one. We thus have simple or compound subjects and predicates. 

Ex " Wheat grows." " "Wheat and barley grow and ripen." 

The proposition may vary to express time. This shows itself in six forms in 
the Tenses ; and must otherwise be expressed, like the other circumstances, by 
modifying words, phrases, or clauses. 

Ex. — "I write; I wrote ; I shall write; I have written ;" etc. "I write daily.' 1 '' "I 
wrote last week.'''' " I write when I have the opportunity.'''' " I wrote where you are sitting." 

The proposition may vary according to the relations of the subject to the act 
or state, the speaker's knowledge or will, or the dependence of events. These 
variations show themselves in Moods. 

Ex. — " I wrote." " I should have written." " It may rain." " Write to him." " If 
it rain, we shall have good crops." 

The proposition may vary according to the speaker's knowledge, doubts, will, 
or feelings; that is, be either declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 
See p. U. 

A proposition may itself make a sentence. 

Ex. — " G-lory is like a circle in the water." 

A proposition may make only a part of a sentence. If it does not modify, it 
is called coordinate; if it modifies, subordinate. 

Ex — "The last load of grain is brought home, | and the tables are spread for the harvest 
feast." " The mind that broods o'er guilty woes., is like a scorpion girt by fire." 

Two or more clauses forming a distinct part of a compound sentence, may be termed a member ; 
and so may the remaining clause, or group of clauses. 

To a proposition may be added an independent word or phrase denoting the 
person or thing addressed. 

Ex. — " Gentlemen, your whole concern should be to do your duty, regardless of con- 
sequences. 

A proposition may sometimes be abridged to a mere phrase. 

Ex. — " When the lesson had been learned, we went to play' 1 =.The lesson being learned, wa 
went to play. " I came that I might see the s/iow"— I came to see the show: 

Sometimes a phrase or an entire clause, as well as a single word, may be 
used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

Ex.—" The boy who is studious, will learn"= The studious boy will learn. " He begins 
his work before the sun rises "=: He begins his work before sunrise — He begins his work 
early. " It is well known that he is incompetent "— That he is incompetent, is well known — 
His being incompetent is well known = His incompetence is well known. 

Sometimes a phrase or an entire clause may be modified or affected like a 
single word. 

Ex. — "A great many valuable books." Here each word, beginning with "A," modifies 
all that comes after it. " He was so young, so generous, so every thing that ice are apt to 
like in a young man.'''' " You study grammar fob your improvement in language." 

To express the meaning with emphasis, or greater force, we sometimes omit 
words, or change the order of the words. 

Ex. — " Tyrants no more their savage nature kept"= Tyrants kept their savage nature no 
more. " Far-fetched and dear-bought is for ladies "— What is far-fetched and dear-bought, 
is for ladies. 

We spell words ; pronounce words ; derive word3 from others, classify them, 
and prepare them for sentences ; put words together so as to make sentences ; and 
improve sentences, chiefly by utterance, so as to make them most agreeable and 
forcible. Hence Grammar may be divided into Orthography, Pronun' ciation, 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

The syntax of sentences is best considered under four heads : relation, gov- 
ernment, agreement (or concord), and position. The relation of words is their 
reference to one another according to the sense ; government is the power which 



114 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

one word has over another in causing its case, person, number, or some other 
property ; agreement is the correspondence of one word with another in case, per- 
son, number, or some other property ; and position refers to the place which a 
word occupies in reference to other words. 

THE SIX ELEMENTS. 

All discourse may be divided into paragraphs ; paragraphs into sen- 
tences; sentences into clauses or propositions; and propositions into 
phrases and words. 

All sentences may be most conveniently analyzed, by resolving them 
into six elements ; two 'principal elements, two modifying elements, a con- 
necting element, and an independent element. • 

The two principal elements are the subject-nominatives and the predi- 
cate-verbs ; both of which are easily distinguished, by their form and 
sense, from the other parts. 

The modifying elements are either adjective elements or adverbial ele- 
ments. 

Any word, phrase, or clause, that modifies a noun, is an adjective ele- 
ment. It shows of what kind or nature the object is. 

Any word, phrase, or clause, that modifies a verb, an adjective, an 
adverb, or an entire predicate, is an adverbial element. It generally shows 
where, when, how, why, what, in tvhat respect, to ivhat extent, or expresses 
negation. Its chief use is, to make with the predicate-verb the predicate. 
For the sake of greater precision, the objective elements may be distin- 
guished, as such, from the other adverbial elements. 

The connecting elements are the conjunctions, the prepositions, some 
adverbs, and the relative pronouns. Connectives may perform, addition- 
ally, some office in the parts to which they belong ; they may be expressed 
or omitted ; they may be used singly or in pairs ; they may consist of one 
word each, or of a phrase. 

The independent element may be a substantive denoting what is ad- 
dressed, or what is the mere subject of thought; or it may be an interjec- 
tion ; or it may be something that represents an entire sentence, or stands 
as the fragment of a sentence. 

A part used singly, is called a simple element ; a pair or series of parts is 
called a compound element ; and a part that is modified by another, makes with 
it a complex element. 

Every proposition or clause should be separated, as soon as possible, 
into its grammatical subject and predicate ; and all the dependent parts 
should then be referred, according to the sense, to the one or to the other. 

What is inverted or elliptical, should generally be analyzed as if it stood 
in its logical order or fullness. 

It is sometimes not easy to determine whether an adjunct, an adjective, or an ad- 
jective phrase ; a participle or a participial phrase; an infinitive or an infinitive 
phrase, — should be referred to the subject or to the predicate. Consider carefully 
what constitutes the whole of that of which the affirmation is made ; next consider 
what constitutes the whole of that which is strictly affirmed. "When even this 
mode of judging is inadequate, it will probably be a matter of little consequence, 
to which part the modification is referred. 

How may discourse be divided? How may sentences be analyzed? Describe eacb kind 
of elements. "What else is said of analysis ? 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 115 

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Note. — The ideas entertained about Analysis are so various that they have not as yet 
settled down into a uniform system. What we have taught on this subject from page 102, is 
in accordance with what is now regarded as the most approved system. Many grammarians, 
especially the older ones, divide all sentences into but two classes, — simple and compound; 
or else they regard all complex sentences as compound, but not all compound sentences as 
complex, using compound as a generic term to complex,. The following views, however, 
which now prevail most in Great Britain, are more exact and philosophical, and will probably 
give better satisfaction to those who are in the habit of thinking closely upon the structure 
of language. (Both the older and the more recent mode of classifying sentences, are shown 
in the Comprehensive Grammar See pp. 3, 58, 68 ) 

There runs through discourse, more or less, a serial sense, 
and also a modified sense. The former gives us compound 
structure;* and the latter, complex structure. 

All sentences that have two or more distinct predicates, 
are either complex or compound. 

A complex sentence contains but one principal clause, with 
one or more dependent clauses. 

The dependent clause is combined -with the principal clause, in the sense of a 
NOUN, an ADJECTIVE, or an AD VERB, or else simply depends on it for com- 
plete sense. The subordinate or dependent clauses which make with other clauses 
complex members or sentences, comprise the relative clauses, the adverbial clauses, 
the correlative clauses, and generally the conjunctive clauses that express compar- 
ison, condition, concession, exception, cause, consequence, or purpose. See p. 65. 

What is grammatically dependent, may be logical principal ; that is, what is 
dependent in construction, may be most . important in sense ; as, " When the sun, 
rises, the birds sing." " To think always accurately, is a great accomplishment." 

A compound sentence contains two or more principal co- 
ordinate clauses. 

Such clauses are generally connected by conjunctions of the first three classes 
(see p. 65), or they have no connective. 

Complex and compound, as here used, are entirely distinct ; so that a sentence may be 
complex without being compound, or compound without being complex. 

A complex member consists of two or more clauses combined 
like those of a complex sentence, and forms only a part of a sen- 
tence. 

A compound member consists of two or more coordinate 
clauses, and forms only a part of a sentence. 

A phrase whose chief word is modified by another phrase, 
may be called complex. 

The subject is the nucleus of the sentence, round which every thing else clus- 
ters, and which is, in fact, modified by everything else, even by the predicate-verb 
itself, with all its appendages. Hence some grammarians call the entire predicate 
the attribute of the subject. If, then, we regard dependent clauses always as mod- 
ifying clauses, we shall have the strange anomaly, when clauses are used as sub- 
jects, of making the subject modify the predicate. (See p. 120.) But the above 
definition of a complex sentence, avoids the difficulty. 

The skeleton of thought which underlies the full-robed sentence, may bo 
briefly exhibited thus : — 

When? Where? 



Which one ? ) ( Is what ? 

How many ? >Subject.-| Does what ? 
Of what kind ? / Suffers what ? 



How ? Why ? 
As to what? 



116 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS. 

Literature, or discourse, may be divided into prose and verse; 
prose and blank- verse may often be conveniently divided into paragraphs; 
other verse, into stanzas ; and all prose and verse, of whatever kind, may 
be resolved into sentences. 

Sentences are either simple, complex, or compound; declarative, 
interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, or composites of these; and may 
be resolved into propositions or clauses. 

If long, sentences may often be conveniently divided first into members, 
and then into clauses. 

Propositions or clauses are either independent or dependent; 
declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory ; and may be re- 
solved into connectives, subjects, and predicates. 

Subjects and Predicates are either simple or compound, and 
unmodified or modified. 

For the purpose of descending still farther in analysis, all discourse may 
be considered as consisting of the following six elements, which may 
be again subdivided into various parts : — 

Principal Elements. 

Subject: Noun, pronoun, verbal noun or phrase, clause. 
Predicate* : Finite verb. 
The unmodified (or grammatical) subject or predicate, with all its modi- 
fications, may be called the entire (modified, or logical) subject or predicate. 

Modifying Elements ; Modifiers, or Modifications. See foot-note, p. 118. 

Adjective. — A Noun or Pronoun may be modified — 1. by an ar- 
ticle ; 2. by an adjective or an adjective phrase ; 3. by a possessive ; 4. by 
an appositive or an appositive phrase or clause ; 5. by a participle or a 
participial phrase; 6, by an infinitive or an infinitive phrase ; 7. by an 
adjunct ; 8, or by a clause, sometimes abridged into a phrase. 

Adverbial. — A Finite Verb, a Participle, or an Infinitive, may 
be modified — 1. by an object, sometimes a phrase or clause ; 2, by a predi- 
cate-nominative, sometimes a phrase or clause; 3. by an adjective or an 
adjective phrase; 4. by an adverb; 5 by a participle or a participial 
phrase; 6. by an infinitive or an infinitive phrase; 7. by an adjunct; 
8. by a clause, sometimes abridged into a phrase. 

An Adjective may be modified by an adverb, an adjunct, an infinitive or an 
infinitive phrase, or a clause. 

An Adverb may be modified by an adverb or an adjunct. 

A modifying element may make a part of either the entire subject or the entire predicate ; 
and, on the other hand, the principal elements also enter into the modifying clauses. 

There are also grades of modification ; that is, a part which modifies, may itself 
be modified, and this modifying part may also be modified, and so on. 

Connecting Element : Conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, relative 
pronouns, prepositions. 

Independent Element : Interjections, nominatives independent 
Sometimes a word or phrase that represents a proposition. 

* Predicate, Copula, and Attribute.— About predicate there is great 
diversity of opinion. Some writers apply the term to the predicate-verb only ; some, to all 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



Ill 



SYMBOLS TO SHOW THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

The eye is the most powerful of the five senses. The more completely, therefore, any 
thing can be brought under its dominion, the more easily it is mastered. Locke, in his great 
work on the Human Understanding, recommends the reducing of abstractions to symbols that 
may be easily grasped by the eye. It is well known what wonderful power has been acquired 
over the abstractions of quantity, by means of the few symbols and axioms of algebra ; and 
how completely the almost infinite world of music is subjected by means of a few represent- 
ative marks. 

Attempts have been frequently made, both in this country and in Europe, to present the 
construction of sentences to the eye, by means of diagrams or symbols. Mr. F. A P. Bar- 
nard, many years ago devised a system that seems to have been the germ of Mr. Clark's sys- 
tem. Dr. Morell, of London, and several writers in our educational journals, have tried 
systems in letters. All of these systems, however, are defective, and seem to be too com- 
plicated and mechanical. 

What we want, is a brief, simple, and comprehensive system, by which the pupil can 
easily show to his teacher at a glance, what he Knows of the construction of the sentences 
which have been assigned to him as a task. I have therefore devised the following 
mode of writing out algebraically the construction of sentences : — 



First Class. 

S, sentence. 

M, member. 

P, proposition. 

0, independent or prin- 
cipal clause. 

c, dependent clause. 

c',c"j c'", degrees of depend- 
ence below the first. 

N, subject-ra ominative, or 
unmodified subject. 

V, predicate-verb, or un- 
modified predicate. 

N m , abridged expression 
for m odified subject. 

V m , abridged expression 
for m odified predicate 
By referring to pp. 105-8, 117- 



X, independent word or 

phrase. 
Eepeat for compound, ex- 
cept S. 

Second Class. 
+ , predication. 
=; equivalence. 
1» II) II f) separation, less or 
greater; 
or use the punctuation 
marks of the sentence itself. 
( ), supplied matter. 
oo, placed over to show, 
if necessary, inversion. 
Third Class. 
r, article. 

a, adjective. 

b, advero. 



d, adjunct. 
And let d =• p o, etc. 
s, possessive. 

e, appositive — explana- 
tory or emphatic. 

0, object. 

t, predicate-nominative, 
p, participle. 

1, absoZute phrase; i.e., 
nom. absol. with participle. 

And let 1 = n p, etc. 

i, infinitive. 

j, (,/oin,) connective. 

Repeat for compound. 

', ", '", degrees of sub- 
ordination below the 
first or primary. 

*, the reader can see that these symbols exhaust the subject. 



If at any time it should appear necessary, any of these symbols can be made to 
show the relations of others, by being placed, as superiors, over them. Thus : 
c a = adjective clause ; cb, adverbial clause ; c°, objective clause ; c l , predicate- 
nominative clause ; i°, objective infinitive ; d b , adverbial adjunct ; N3, connecting 
nominative, i. e., relative pronoun. 

Ex. — " Large streams from little fountains flow." S = P= a N +V d. d = p a o. 

The stanza on page 130, an excellent specimen for illustration, would stand 
thus in our symbols : — 

S=M; M=Cc; Cc=N + V»: N +' Vm = n + Vr aa'tc; N +Vraatc. 
c = N + Vd. d = paa / o. c= saN + Vdj Vsaobb. d = po. 

From this example we see, that the teacher may require of his pupils^rsrf grade 
analysis only, which goes not below clauses ; or second grade, which shows sub- 
jects and predicates and dependent clauses, and which may be abridged ; or third 
grade, which shows all the minutiae 

We have not room here to exemplify this subject at large. See pp. 118-2S. The above 
system seems to us a good one — one that can be made really useful in schools. It can be 

that is said of the subject ; and some of the old logicians apply it to what follows the verb be, 
or to what is now generally called the attribute. The predicate-verb be is often called the 



118 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

learned in a few hours ; the symbols are sufficient to exhaust the subject, or to reach all sen- 
tences -whatsoever ; the longest sentences can be thus analyzed in a line or two, for which 
diagrams or words would require pages ; the analysis can be shown by descending steps, or 
by a regular descent from the greatest parts to the least, with all compound structure and 
every degree of subordination; the symbols will 6how of what the sentence consists, and 
their position will generally be sufficient to show the relation of the parts ; the plus marks 
readily show the predications, or ganglia, of the sentence : one large P on the right, at once 
shows that the sentence is simple ; one large C, that it is complex ; and two, comjioxmd. 
But we leave it to teachers to rind out whether there is any advantage in the scheme. 

EXEKCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 

%W In arranging the following examples, I have, in general, passed from words to 
phrases and from phrases to clauses, from unmodified to modified, from simple to compound, 
and from regular construction to inverted or elliptical. To make the simplest classification, 
it has been necessary to give sentences beyond the pupil's present ability. The latter para- 
graphs or the more complicated sentences should therefore be deferred for a second or third 
course. — Superior ( 3 ), over the end of a sentence, shows that it is simple 8 ; ( c ), compound ; 
and (*), complex*. 

It is often a convenience to name phrases and clauses according to their lead- 
ing or principal words, or according to their sense. Hence we have sub'stantive 
phrases, ad'jective phrases, participial phrases, infinitive p>hrases, adverbial phrases, 
appos'itive or explanatory pihrases, independent phrases, ab solute phrases, idiomat'ic 
phrases, etc. ; substantive clauses, adjective clauses, adverbial clauses, relative clauses, 
correlative clauses, appositive or explanatory clauses, conjunctive clauses, etc. 

Principal Elements. 
1. Simple Subjects and Predicates. 

Unmodified. 

I went.* N + V. Stars shine. It snows. Lights were 
shining. He should have been rewarded. Who sang ? Could 
they have gone ? Singing had commenced. To whisper is for- 
bidden. Banners waved. Hark ye. 

* This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is 7, and the predicate is icent. 

copula ; but its chief idea is predication, rather than that of merely joining parts. (See 
Kerl's Comp. Gram., p. 197.) The adjective, noun, adjunct, etc., which follows the verb be, 
or any other intransitive verb, and is descriptive of the subject, is oiten called an attribute. 
(See Mill's Logic ; also the Grammars of Greene, Covell, Pinneo, etc.) But it is not proper 
to call it an attribute, when it expresses mere identity. 

We may say that the verb be is limited by an attribute of the subject ; but to dispose of 
the attribute by referring it to the subject, as I have known some teachers to do, is wrong ; 
for we thus convert Analysis at once into Parsing, or break up the main distinction be- 
tween them, namely, that of subject and predicate. 

In every language with which I am acquainted, the copula is also a verb that expresses 
existence ; and it is therefore highly probable that existence was the fundamental idea. 
1 She is rich'"' <= She exists in a rich condition. But this idea of existence appears to be 
now generally lost in that of predication ; and hence many grammarians take the verb be 
with the attribute, as the grammatical predicate. This mode of analysis is allowable ; yet 
it often leads to trouble, and tends to break up the distinction between the grammatical and 
the logical predicate. When I siy, "John is idle"; idle certainly does not modify is, in the 
ordinary sense of modify ; but let us extend the meaning of modi fi', or use limit in its place. 
John maybe — a hundred different things. The word after the vert) be determines what he 
is, or fixes the assertion, or limits the verb be. This mode of analysis has the advantage of 
simplicity, and it is sufficiently exact for the requirements of Grammar. 

Modifiers.— The modifying elements are usually called modifier*, or modifi- 
cations. Murray and Brown call them incidentally adjunct*. Modifier seems to be the bet- 
ter term ; for. etymolonically considered, the terms are always modifiers, but not always 
adjuncts. The term adjunct is used by nearly all grammarians in the sense which we have 
given to it on p. 63 ; but some late writers prefer 2>repositional phrase, which, though not so 
short as adjunct is a good term, and would deserve encouragement, if adjunct should super- 
sede modifier.— Modify we use as the generic term, and limit as the specific. In analysis it 
will generally be found best to use limit. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 119 

Modified by Words and Phrases. 

1. These roses are very beautiful. S = P = J$ m + Y m == 
aN 4- Yba. 2. Lies have short legs s . 3. Too much fear is an 
enemy to good deliberation 8 . 4. Virtuous youth brings forth 
accomplished and nourishing manhood s . 5. Milton, the author 
of Paradise Lost, was deeply versed 10 in ancient learning. s 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is These 
roses ; the subject-nominative is roses, which is limited by the adjective These. The 
entire predicate is are very beautiful • the predicate-verb is are, which is limited by 
the adjective beautiful, or combines with it in making a descriptive assertion of the 
subject. Beautiful is modified by the adverb very, expressing degree. Or say, 
The predicate- verb is are, which is limited by the adjective beautiful, an attribute 
of the subject; and beautiful is modified by very, expressing degree. 

Modified by Clauses. 

Subject. — 1. They who are set to rule over others, must be 
just. S=:Cc = Nc+ Va. 2. There was one clear, shining 
star, that 1 used to come out into the sky before the rest, near the 
church 10 spire, above the graves x . 

Predicate. — 3. Heaven has imprinted, in the mother's face, 
something that claims kindred with the skies*. 4. I was assured 
that he would return 1 . 

Clausal Phrases. — 5. The disputes between the majority 
which supported the mayor, and the minority headed by the 
magistrates, had repeatedly run so high that 15 bloodshed seemed 
inevitable*. 6. We found, in our rambles, several pieces of flint 
which the Indians had once used for arrow-heads 1 . 

Analysis. — 1. This is a complex declarative sentence. The independent or prin- 
cipal clause is, They must be just ; and who are set to rule over others, is the depend- 
ent clause, which is joined to They by the relative who, and is used in the sense 
of an adjective. 2. It would be a convenience to parse like, near, and worth as 
prepositions ; and some respectable grammarians parse them so. These words 
seem to have absorbed the governing power of the preposition. But near, and 
sometimes like, may be compared ; and sometimes they are followed by to. 6. The 
independent or principal clause, exclusive of its longer modifications, is, The dis- 
putes between, the majority and the minority had repeatedly run so high. (Now ana- 
lyze this clause, and then the remaining parts.) The last clause modifies so or so 
high adverbially, by showing the degree. 

[For beginners, it will generally be found easiest to resolve all sentences simply 
into their independent and dependent propositions, and to take not more for one 
analysis than a single predication, continually pushing aside, for subsequent ana- 
lysis, the minor clauses. It may also be often best to state simply on what a de- 
pendent clause depends, or to mention with this statement the sense of the con- 
nective as shown on p. 65. When sentences are long, it is sometimes more 
convenient to 6tate first the unmodified (or grammatical) subject or predicate, and 
then the modifiers that make the entire (or logical) subject or predicate.] 

Inverted and Elliptical Constructions. 

1. In every grove warbles the voice of love and pleasure 8 . 
rNd -f- V d. 2. Bursts the wild cry of terror and dismay 8 . 
3. How wonderfully are we made s ! 4. To what expedient wilt 
thou fly s ? 5. Then first thy Sire, to send on earth, Virtue, his 
darling child, designed 3 . 



120 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

G. Write. 7. Sweet the pleasure. 8. Give me 6 the horse 4 . 
9. Let nothing frighten you but sin s . 10. The inquisitive are 
generally talkative. 11. Here the wigwam blaze beamed on the 
tender and helpless 8 . 

" "Where's thy true treasure ?" Gold says, " Not in me ;" 
And, " Not in me," the Diamond . Gold is poor ! 

Analysis & Pausing. — 1. Always show first what the prose arrangement would be, and 
then analyze the sentence. 6. Supply thou or you. 7. Supply is. 9. Let is modified by the 
phrase after it as the entire object, and by nothing as the simple object. Frighten modifies 
nothing — or refers the act to it, and also depends on Let. " We made him speak;" "We 
made him poor;" " We made him a bankrupt ,*" " I feel my health declining :" in all these 
sentences, the Italic word modifies the substantive, and depends also on the verb. 10. The 
adjective inquisitive is here used elliptically for inquisitive persons ; and, for the 6ake of 
convenience, it may be parsed as a noun But when such an adjective is modified by an ad- 
verb, or when several such adjectives unite in describing the same persons, a substantive 
should be supplied. 11. Supply ones or persons. 

Infinitive Phrases used as Subjects. 

1. *To relieve the poor, is our duty 8 , iro + Yst. 2. To 
pay as you go, is the safest way to fortunes 3. To have ad- 
vanced much farther without wagons or supplies, would have 
been dangerous s . 

Inverted and Elliptical. 
Unknown to them, when sensual pleasures cloy, 
To fill the languid pause with finer joy*. 

* To relieve the poor is the entire subject ; to relieve is the unmodified subject. 
Clauses used as Subjects. 

1. That the earth is round, is. now well known*. c + Vbl">. 
2. Whether we should go, was next discussed*. 3. How many 
and what enormous lies have been published in the newspapers, 
must have astonished every honest reader*. 4. " Dust thou art, 
to dust returnest," was not written of the soul*. 

That the earth is round, is the entire principal subject. That is the connective, which 
is used to unite more closely into a whole the words of its clause, and to combine them in 
this sense with the principal predicate. 

T3ifELc-u.lt [Parsing. 

Give what 8 you can spare. What 7 is that yonder ? I know 
not what 7 it is. What 10 a simpleton he is ! Who? is a pro- 
noun. What 16 ! shall we never have any rest ? Is is is 7 . 

Compound Subjects and Predicates. 

Compound Subjects. 

Nouns and Pronouns. 

1. John 1 and I 1 went. XjN + V. . 2. Either James or 
Henry is talking 3 . 3. Lead, iron, and coal, were found 8 . 4. His 
magnificence, his taste, his classical learning, his high spirit, the 
grace and urbanity of his manners, were admitted even by his 
enemies s . 

— AxAi/rsis.— 1. This is a simple declarative sentence, with a compound subject John 
and 1 is the entire subject ; and John and / are the subject-nominatives, connected by and. 



ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 121 

4. Where no conjunction is expressed, it is probably best to say that the parts are connected 
by simple succession. — When a predicate must be supplied with each nominative, then the 
sentence, not the subject, should be considered compound ; as, " You or he is to be blamed." 
'• The best books, not the cheapest, should be our object." See Comp. Gram., p. 72. 

Infinitive Phrases. 

1. To remain and to advance were equally dangerous. 2. *To 
hope and strive is the way to thrive. 3. To be wise in our own 
eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in 
the sight of our Creator, are three things that rarely coincide 1 . 

* To hope and strive is the entire subject and the subject-nominative. To hope is in part 
the subject of is. Js agrees with to hope and to strive conjointly, taken as one thing. 

Clauses. 

That he should take offense at such a trifle, that he should 
write an article about it, and that he should then publish it, sur- 
prised us all x . 

Clausal Phrases. 

The wit whose vivacity condemns slower tongues to silence, 
the scholar whose knowledge allows no man to fancy that he in- 
structs him, the critic who suffers no fallacy to pass undetected, 
and the reasoner who condemns the idle to thought and the 
negligent to attention, are generally praised and feared, rev- 
erenced and avoided 1 . N" c, S" c c', N" c, 1ST c -f- b V j V, V j V. 

Compound Predicates. 

1. He rose, reigned, and fell 8 . N + VYjV. 2. Read and 
write. 3. Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountains, and 
read their doom in the setting sun 8 . 

4. Though the world smile on you blandly, 
Let 11 your friends be 12 choice 10 and few; 
Choose your course, pursue it grandly, 

And achieve what 8 you pursue. — T. JB. Head. 

5. Glass is impermeable to water, admits the light and ex- 
cludes the wind, is capable of receiving and retaining the most 
lustrous colors, is susceptible of the finest polish, can be carved 
or sculptured like stone or metal, never loses a fraction of its sub- 
stance by constant use, and is so insensible to the action of acids 
that it is employed by chemists for purposes to which no other 
substance could be applied 1 . 

S = Ccc' = N + V ra , V m V m , V m , V m V m , Y m , j V b a d c b c'. 

Analysis.— 1. This is a simple declarative sentence, with a compound predicate. 4. By 
supplying thou after each verb, the second member affords three simple coordinate clauses : 
but it is probably better to consider these three verbs as making a compound predicate. 

Adjective Elements. 
1- Articles. 
A church stands on the adjoining hill. A statesman's charac- 
ter should be an honor to his country. rsN + Vrtd. 



122 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Elliptical and Peculiar Constructions. 

1. A man and woman were drowned. S=P=rNj (r)N-f V. 
2. He bought a house and lot 8 . 3. A river runs between the old 
and the new mansion 3 . 4. A great many adjectives are derived 
from nouns 3 5. Peter the Great is the pride of Russia*. 

Analysis & Parsing.— 1. Supply a before woman. 2. A relates to both house and lot, 
for both are regarded as one thing. 4. A relates to all the rest of the subject; or it would per- 
haps be better to parse many as a plural collective nouu, and supply of after it. We say/ A 
creat many of them." 5. " Peter the Great" = Peter the Great Lmperor ; or, Ihe Great 
Peter. But it is probably best to parse the whole expression as a proper nouu. 

2. Adjectives. 

1. This little twig bore that large red apple 3 . a a' N + 
VaaVo. 2. Green fields and forests were before us 8 . 3. A swift 
and limpid rivulet purled over the pebbles 8 . 4. He used very 
forcible but courteous language 8 . 5. Two plum-trees, radiant 
with white blossoms on every bough, overtop the garden wall 8 . 
6. The whole world swarms with life, animal and vegetable 8 . 

Apple is modified by red ; red apple, by large ; and large red apple, by that. Green, 
in the next example, belongs to both fields and forests. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. A bright and handsome young lady she was 3 . 2. Calm, 
attentive, and cheerful, he confutes more gracefully than others 
compliment 1 . Naaja + Vb'bc. 3. Then followed a long, a 
strange, a glorious conflict of genius against power 8 . 4. So ex- 
cellent a faculty is memory, that all other faculties borrow from 
it their beauty and perfection 1 . 5. She was a virgin lovely as 
the dewy rose x . 6. Violets meek and jonquils sweet she chose 8 . 

Analysis. — 2. The dependent clause, than others comjyliment, limits, determines, or com- 
pletes the comparison. 5. Virgin is modified by lovely ; and lovely is modified by the ad- 
verbial clause as the dewy rose (is lovely). 

3. Possessives. 

John's horse is in our garden 53 . sN + Yd. Gen. George 
Washington's residence was on the Potomac s . Soft 10 blows the 
breeze o'er India's coral strand 3 . 

Elliptical and Peculiar Constructions. 

1. I will wait at Smith's 3 , the bookseller 7 . 2. I will wait at 
Smith 3 the bookseller's 7 . 3. Lewis 3 and Raymond's factory was 
burned 3 . 4. This is a discovery of Sir Isaac'lSTewton's 8 . 5*. That 
head of yours has many strange fancies in it 3 . 0. The sea is T lis, 
for He made it x . 7. Simpson's Playfair's Euclid is the one 7 that 
I studied x . 8. The bard of Lomond's lay is done 3 . 

Analysis & Parsing.— 1. Sunply house or store nfter Smith'*. 2. Bookseller's, rather 
than Smith, is the word in apposition. 3. Lewis is still in the possessive case, though used 
without the possessive sign. 4. Supply discoveries. 5. Fours, an idiom ; equivalent to yam 
possession. 6. Supply property. It would be a convenience to parse His as a possessive pro- 
noun representing a possessive modifying word and a nominative chief word, and therefore 
in the nominative case, agreeing with sea. In a similar way, yours, of the preceding exam- 
ple. But the analogies of grammar are against this mode of parsing these words. 7. Fuclid 
is limited by Playfair's, and the phrase Playfair's Euclid is limited by Simpson's. 
8. Bard (*«) is governed by lay, and LomondCs) by of. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 123 

4. Appositive or Explanatory Expressions. 

Nouns and Pronouns. 

1. Thou, thou 7 , art the man s . Ne+Vrt. 2. I myself was 
present s . 3. The nurse, that ancient lady, preached deuoruni 8 . 
4. The twin sisters, Poetry and Music, are my delight 8 . 5. There 
is but one God, the author, the creator, and the governor of the 
world ; almighty, eternal, and incomprehensible 8 . 6. Thou sun, 
both eye and soul of the world. 7. John, John, John ! you lazy 
boy! 8. A cove, or inlet 7 , divides the isiand s . 9. The commis- 
sioners, that is, Mason and Dixon, established this line 8 . 10. She 
was proud of me as 15 her pupil s . 11. I object to his appointment 
as clerk 8 . 12. Messrs. William and Robert ' Bailey were con- 
versing with the Misses Barnes 8 . 13. Madame de Stael calls 
beautiful architecture frozen music 8 . 14. I sold them for a dollar 
a pair 8 . 15. The saint 1 , the father 7 , and the husband, prays. 8 — 
Burns. 16. You are too humane and considerate; things few 
people can be charged with s . — Pope. 

Analysis & Parsing. — 6. Analogy seems to be in favor of making Thou the nominative 
independent, and sun the appositive. (See sentences beginning with it, next paragraph.) 
Eye and soul are in apposition with sun. 7. The first John is the principal word, which is 
modified by John, John, and perhaps you rather than boy. You, is modified by boy, and boy 
by lazy. 9. That is, a conjunction. 10. Pupil is in apposition with me, and joined to it by 
as. 11. Clerk is in apposition with his. This sentence might be considered somewhat am- 
biguous, and it is therefor not to be commended: 12. William (Bailey) and Robert Bailey 
are put in apposition with 3Iessrs. ; but Misses Barnes is best parsed as but one noun. 13. 
Calls is modified by beautiful architecture frozen music, as the entire object, and by archi- 
tecture as the simple object. Music is put in apposition with architecture, and is partially 
governed by calls. 14. Pair is in apposition with them, for it explains them distributively. 
16. Things is probably best parsed as an appositive absolute— relating to the adjectives hu- 
mane and considerate — and therefore in the nominative case, according to Rule II. Supply 
which as the object of with. 

Infinitive Phrases. 

1. It is foolish to lay out money in a purchase of repentance 8 . 
N~i e bocl + V"a. 2. It is mean to divulge the secrets of a friend 8 . 

3. It is our duty to be friendly toward mankind, as much as it is 
our interest that mankind should be friendly toward us x . 

Analysts. — 1. This is a simple declarative sentence. It, with the explanatory infinitive 
phrase, to lay out money, etc., is the entire subject ; and It is the subject-nominative. It is 
modified by the phrase to lay out money, etc., as the entire appositive or explanatory phrase ; 
aud by the infinitive to lay, as the simple appositive. To lay is modified by the adverb out, 
the object money, and the complex adjunct in a purchase of repentance. 

Clauses. 

1. It is through inward health, that we enjoy all outward 
things. Nc e + Vd. 2. It is scarcely to be imagined, how soon 
the mind sinks to a level with its condition 1 . 3. Study is at 
least valuable for this — that it makes man his own companion 1 . 

4. The opinion that the soul is immortal, has always prevailed. 

Analysis & Parsing. — 1. This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of an inde- 
pendent and a dependent proposition. The unmodified independent proposition is, It is 
through inward health ; the dependent proposition is, that we enjoy all outivard things, 
which is used in the sense of an appositive, explanatory of It. 3. Supply thing ; or say, This 
is a demonstrative pronoun representing the phrase this thing, and therefore in the n. g., 3d. 
p., s. n., and in the o. c— being the object of the preposition for— according to Kule V. 4. The 
unmodified independent clause is, The ojrinion has alivays 2>rcvailed ; the dependent clause 
is, that the soul is immortal. 



124 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. Child of the Sun, refulgent Summer comes 8 . aNed + V. 
2. Thyself shalt see the act s . (N)e + Vro. 3. This monument 
is itself 7 the orator of this occasion 3 . — Webster. 4. One by one 
the moments fly s . 5. They had one each 8 . 

Analysis & Parsing. — 3. Itself is in apposition with monument; it is not a predicate- 
nominative. 4. One may be parsed as an adjective, belonging to moment understood ; or it 
may be parsed as an indefinite pronoun, representing, with its adjunct, the subject distribn- 
tively, and therefore in apposition with this subject. One by one might also be parsed as an 
adverbial phrase, showing the manner of flying. 5. Each may be parsed as a pronoun 
presenting distributively again the subject they, and therefore put in the same case with it 
by Rule VII. When a suitable substantive can be easily supplied after a pronominal adjec- 
tive, this latter word should generally be parsed as an adjective ; when a substantive can not 
be supplied without changing the sense, the pronominal should be parsed as a pronoun ; and 
when a substantive can not be easily supplied, it will be generally better to parse the pro- 
nominal as a pronoun. A pronominal, when parsed as a pronoun, should be called distrib- 
utive, demonstrative, indefinite, emphatic, etc., according to the sense in which it is used. 

5. Participles. 
1. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again 8 . 1ST p d + Vb. 
2. The deer, seeing me, fled 8 . 3. The wolf being much exas- 
perated by the wound, sprang upon the horse 8 . 4. He had a 
beautiful daughter, betrothed to a chief 8 . 5. I had it done for 
you s . 6. There are twenty-six senators, distinguished for their 
wisdom, not elevated by popular favor, but chosen by a select 
body of men 8 . 7. The blast seemed to bear away the sound of 
the voice, permitting nothing to be heard but 14 its own wild 
howling, mingled with the creaking and the rattling of the cord- 
age, and the hoarse thunder of the surges, striving like savage 

beasts for our destruction 8 . . 

Inverted . 

8. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a soldier lay, 
Tom with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life away . 

Analysis & Parsing.— 1. Truth is the subject-nominative, and it is modified by the 
nartirimal phrase n'ushed to earth. 5. Done is here a participle rather than an infinitum 
fftaSreSdiffic^Sfto determine whether a word in this ff^S^ruSSS'Z 
an infinitive with to be understood before it. Be governed by the sense. 8 Tb is s one of he 
sentences in which it is hard to determine what makes the subject, and what makes the 
predicate Pertaps the division is properly made thus: .1 soldier, fair and young, torn ici h 
YhotandplrleTivith lances, | lay close beside her, jaintly moaning, and sloicly bleeding 
away his life. See p. 114. 

6. Infinitives. 
1. Contributions to relieve the sufferers, were sent in 8 . 
Niro + Vb. 2. The book to be adopted by us, should be 
compared with others of the same kind 8 . 3. Persuade Mary to 
let him have his books 8 . 4. Let us have some ol these clams 
cooked for supper 8 . 

Analysis & Parsing.-!. Contributions is limited by the infinitive phrase to relieve the 
^ftrers T%okeT V r%en^ here again the difficulty of deciding between the perf. pass, 
participle and the pres. pass, infinitive. It is rather the infinitive. 

7. Adjuncts. 
Simple. 

1. The roar of the lion was heard 8 . rNd + V. 2. She 
bouo-ht a house with its furniture 8 . 3. The promises of Hope are 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 125 

sweeter than roses in the bud, and far more flattering to expec- 
tation 1 . 4. The sailors did not like the idea of being treated so 3 . 
5. There is a flower about to bloom 3 . 6. The question of who is 
to lead them, was next discussed x . 

Complex. 
7. A Gothic cathedral is a blossoming in stone, subdued by 
the insatiable desire of harmony in man 3 . 8. The gold in a piece 
of quartz from the mines of California, weighed several pounds 3 . 

Compound. 

10. The large elm between the house and the river, seems to 
be the king of the forest 1 ". 11. Brazil is regarded as a land of 
mighty rivers and virgin forests, palm-trees and jaguars, anacon- 
das and alligators, howling monkeys and screaming parrots, 
diamond-mines, revolutions, and earthquakes 8 . 

Analysis & Passing. — 1. Roar is modified by the adjunct of the lion. 5. About governs 
the infinitive after it. Compare with "About the house" — nearness. 6. 0/ governs the 
clause after it. 8. Weigh is usually parsed as intransitive ; and the object after it is disposed 
of by a Rule corresponding to our Eule VI. But toeigh fundamentally signifies to lift, as in 
the phrase " to xoeigh anchor ;" and I therefore incline to think it should be parsed as tran- 
sitive. 10. Between the house and the river, is an adjunct that is inseparably compound in 
its object. 

8. Clauses. 

I. The honeysuckles which bloom round our portico, are de- 
liciously fragrant x . S = Cc=rNc + Vba. 2. The man who 
sows his field, trusts in God x . '3. Self-denial is the sacrifice which 
virtue must make x . 4. We encamped by a limpid rivulet, that 
purled over the pebbles 1 . 5. He paid more for the flowers and 
gems which he bought, than they are worth x . 6. 'Tis the land 
where the orange and citron grow x . 7. There is plain proof 
that 16 he is guilty x . 8. The man with whom love is a sentiment, 
ever yearns for a home of his own 1 . 9. He who said nothing, 
had the better of it, and got what he wanteds 

10. As one that runs in haste, and leaps over a fence, may fall 
into a pit, on the other side, which he did not see ; so is the man 
who plunges suddenly into any action before he sees the con- 
sequences^ 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

II. Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you x . 
12. We have no such laws as those by which he was tried in the 
State from which he came x . Ccc' c". 'Tis the land I love 1 ." 

Abridged. 

13. She turned, — a reddening rose 7 in bud, 

Its calyx half withdrawn, — 
Her cheek on fire with damasked blood 
Of girlhood's glowing dawn! — Holmes.. 

Analysis «fc Pausing.— 1. The honeysuckles are deUciouslg fragrant, is an unmodified 
independent proposition. Which bloom round our portico, is a dependent proposition, used 
6* 



126 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

in the sense of an adjective describing honeysuckles. 5. Than has here a construction simi- 
lar to that of the relative as ; but it is probably best to supply that is which. 8. With shows 
the relation between love and whom, rather than between is and whom. Nearly equivalent 
to whose love. 10. As and so are correlatives. The principal correlatives are such — as, 
such— that, so— that, so — as, as — as, as— so, the— the, (comparative)— than. Clauses, joined 
by correlatives, sometimes modify each other ; but, in most cases, only one of the clauses is 
strictly the modifier. " As you sow, so you shall reap." Here the reaping, not the sowing, 
is described. 13. Its calyx half withdrawn, is an absolute phrase, used here in the 6ense of a 
relative clause describing rose. Her cheek {being) on fire t etc., is an absolute phrase, used 
here for an adverbial clause of manner or cause, and modifying turned. 

Adverbial Elements, 
i. Objectives. 

Nouns and Pronouns. 

1. Birds build nests s . N + V o. 2. The soil produces corn, 
tobacco, hemp, wheat, and grass 3 . 3. Here he brought her 6 the 
choicest food, the finest clothing, mats for her bed, and sandal-oil 
to perfume herself with 3 . 4. The hurricane even tore down en- 
closures that had been lately made, trees that had stood for ages, 
and mansions that had been built of stone 1 . 

Infinitive Phrases. 

1. I like to study 8 . N + Vi°. 2. We preferred to remain 
at home, and learn our lessons 55 . 3. He intended to move to the 
West, to purchase him a farm, and to end his days on it in peace 
and quiet 3 . 

Clauses. 

1. I believe that he is honest and industrious 1 . N + Yc°. 
2. Who can tell where this war will end ? x 3. Every one must 
have noticed how much more amiable some children are than 
others 1 . 4. She saw that we were tired, and needed some re- 
freshments 5. Tell us not, sir, that we are weak, unable to cope 
with so formidable an adversary x . 6. They said that Halifax 
loved the dignity and emolument of office, that while he con- 
tinued to be president it would be impossible for him to put forth 
his whole strength against the government, and that to dismiss 
him would be to set him free from all restraint 1 . N-f Vc, e'e, c. 

Analysis. — I belt eve, is the unmodified principal clause; that he is honest, etc, is tho 
dependent clause, used here as the object of believe. See Comp. Gram., p. 79. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. Me glory summons to the martial scene 8 . 2. Him well I 
knew, and every truant kne\v c . 3. She gave what she could not 
sell 1 . 4. I know not what to do s . 5. I have nothing to say 8 . 
6. "Life," says Seneca, "is a voyage, in the progress of which 
we are continually changing our scenes" 1 . 7. O, that those lips 
had language 1 ! 8. He bade the stranger 5 hail*. 9. Teach me 
my own defects to scan s . 

3. To simplify the analysis. She gave what may be called the principal clause ; what she 
could not sell, the dependent clause, whose predicate modifies or describes the object of the 
principal clauae. (But see p. 130.) 4. To do, object of knoxo ; what, object of to do. 5. Nothing 
(that 1 u'ish) to say. Perhaps this idiom is best disposed of, by considering nothing the object 
of both have and to do. 7. O, (hoto much I urish) that, etc. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 127 

3. Predicate-Nominatives. 

Nouns and Pronouns, 

He is a soldier. !N" + V r t. I have become a farmer. She was 
appointed governess. Man is a bundle of habits and relations 8 . This 
aunt Betsy 7 was the neatest and most efficient piece of human machinery 
that ever operated in forty places at once x . Tecumseh's brother was the 
priest and prophet of the tribe s . A poor relation is the most irrelevant 
thing in nature, an odious approximation, a haunting conscience, a per- 
petually recurring mortification, a drawback on your rising, a stain in your 
blood, a drain on your purse, and a more intolerable drain on your pride s . 
1. The brooks ran nectar 7 . 2. Towards the earth's centre is down 7 . 3. 
He is tired of being a loafers. 4. 1 knew it to be him s . 
Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprang and stood, 
In softer airs and brighter light, a beauteous sisterhood! 3 

Infinitives. — To venture in was to die 8 . Their service was, to grind 
the corn and carry the baggage 8 . The best way to preserve health, is, 
to be careful about diet and exercise 3 . 

Clauses. — 5. My impression is, that you will succeeds The law should 
be, that he who can not read should not vote x . The excuse was, that 
the army had not been well enough equipped, that the roads were too bad, 
and that the supplies were deficient*. 

Inverted and Elliptical. — 6. I shall be all anxiety, till I know what 7 
his plans are x . A joy thou art and a wealth to all 3 . We stand the 
latest, and, if we fall, the last, experiment 7 of self-government . 

S. Adjectives. 

Tou are studious. N + Ya. She was considered beautiful. Her 
countenance looked mild and gentle*. The question now before Con- 
gress, is practical as death, enduring as time, and high as human destiny*. 
Envy is so base and detestable, so vile in its original, and so pernicious in 
its effects, that the predominance of almost any other passion is to be pre- 
ferred x . Blennerhasset is described as having been amiable and refined, 
and a passionate lover 7 of music 8 . To bleach is to make white. — Webster. 
Correct the heart, and all will go rightc. — Porteus. 

Inverted and Elliptical. — Lovely art thou, Peace! Large, glossy, 
and black hung the beautiful fruit 8 . Green's the sod, and cold the clay c . 

4. Adverbs. 

Verbs Modified. — He spoke eloquently. N + V b. The net was 
curiously woven. The bird flew rapidly away 3 . What he did, he did 
patiently, accurately, and thoroughly*. 7. Drink deep, or taste not the 
Pierian spring . 

Adjectives Modified. — The work is highly useful. rN + Vba. The 
well is deep enough. How various, how animated, how full of interest 
is the survey s \ j h ac j never seen any thing quite so beautiful before s . 

Analysis & Parsing. — 1. To nectar, Rule IV is usually applied ; but the sense seems 
to require Rule VII. The brooks were nectar. 2. Toxoard the earth's centre, noun. So, "For 
me to go, is impossible." 3. Loafer, noun, absol. ; cut off from He by a governing word. 4. 
For want of a better name, call him a predicate-substantive, not a predicate-nomi native. 5. is, 
that you will succeed, is the entire predicate; is is the predicate-verb, limited by the explana- 
tory clause that you, etc., which is used here in the sense of a predicate-nominative. 6. All 
is an adjective belonging to I. 7. Deep, remnant of an adverbial modifier ; therefore an ad- 
verb. (See Comp. Gram., p. 24S.) N. B. " I am here," adv. ; "lam near," adj. Very 
little difference in analogy. 



128 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Adverbs Modified. — We marched rather slowly. You have come al- 
together too soon. The car runs not quite fast enough. 
Clauses modifying adverbially. 
The child seemed to recline on its mother's bosom, as some infant blos- 
som on its parent stem*. The cottage stood where the mountain shad- 
ows fell when the sun was declining x . Remember, while you are de- 
liberating, the season now so favorable may pass away, never to return*. 
When misfortunes overtake you, when sickness assails you, and when 
friends forsake you, religion will be your greatest comfort*. The farther 
we went, the worse we fared*. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 
Up soars the lark, the lyrical poet of the sky 8 . Here, all is confusion; 
there, all is order and beauty c . When young, life's journey I began*. 
More and more richly the rose-heart keeps glowing, 
Till from its nourishing stem it is riven*. 

5. Participles. 

He walks limping. N + Vp. They lay concealed 9 . The oak fell 
shivered by lightnings. He went on his way rejoicing. Our recruits 
stood shivering, and rubbing their hands, in groups on the deck of the 
boat s . Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, comes dancing from 
the east s . 

6. I nf in i t i v e s. 

Verbs Modified. — The child seemed to sleep, r N + V i. She was 
supposed to be rich 8 . He was known to have assisted the editor 8 . Here 
jasmines spread their silver flowers, to deck the wall or weave the bower 9 . 
To curb him, to stand up against him, we want arms of the same kind 8 . 

Adjectives Modified. — She is rather young to go to school 8 . It is a 
thing not easy to be done 8 . Pope was not content to please ; he desired 
to excel, and therefore always did his best c . 

Adverbs Modified. — It is too badly done to last 8 . It was so bright as 
to dazzle our eyes 8 . He proceeded too cautiously to fall into such a trap 8 . 

7. Adjuncts. 

Verbs Modified. — I am in trouble. X + "V d. Deliver us from evil. 
You are suspected of having been negligent 3 . Is there not a display of 
infinite goodness, in the vicissitudes of the seasons ? s Religion dwells not 
in the tongue, but in the heart 8 . These two hundred drachmas will, in a 
little while, rise to four thousand 8 . This will depend on who he 

Adjectives Modified. — Let us be watchful of our liberties 8 . He is in- 
dolent about every thing 9 . They were invincible in arms 9 . 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

In the same cradle was I rocked, and by the same maternal hand.s or c 
On that plain, in rosy youth, they had fed their father's flocks". One hot 
summer's morning, a little cloud rose out of the sea, and glided lightly, like 
a playful child, through the blue sky. and the wide earth, winch lay- 
parched and languishing from the long drought*. By fairy hands their 
knell is rung 8 . Come, go with me the jungle through . According to 
some ancient philosophers, the sun quenches his flames in the ocean. 
(Supply To believe, etc. ; for the sun does not set according to, etc.) 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 129 

&• Glauses. 

I came that I might assist you x . I am afraid that he will not return*. 
He was assured that every thing should be attended to x . 

This is merely a general class of modifications, including objective clauses, predicate- 
nominative clauses, adverbial clauses, and occasionally a clause tbat can not well be brought 
under any one of these three heads. 
npg" Connectives and independent elements have been sufficiently shown elsewhere. Seep. 107 

Simple Sentences. 

A hollow tree sheltered us from the storm. Heaven lies about us in 
our infancy. Bad education and bad example increase greatly our natu- 
ral depravity. All vice infatuates and corrupts the judgment. The surest 
way to lose power, is to abuse it. London, the capital of England, is the 
largest and richest city in the world. Italy is noted for its delightful 
climate, its beautiful scenery, and its historical recollections. He not 
only forgave him, but sent him home loaded with benefits. George 
Washington was born in Virginia, on the 22d of February, 1732. Who 
shall ask me for a passport at the grave of Washington ? True politeness 
is modest, unpretending, and generous. To be without wants, is the 
prerogative of God only. It is too often the fate of labor, to be oppressed 
by capital. O blessed Health ! thou art above all gold and jewels. Every 
day sends out, in quest of pleasure and distinction, some heir fondled in 
ignorance and flattered into pride. Generally speaking, large bodies move 
slowly.t Cats and dogs catch and eat rats and mice. J 

* This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is A hollow tree ; the entire 
predicate, sheltered ws from the storm. Tree is the subject-nominative, modified by the ad- 
jective hollow, and hollow tree is modified by the article A. Sheltered is the predicate-verb, 
modified by the object us, and by the adjunct from the storm. Storm is modified by the 
article the, and connected to sheltered by the preposition from, t This is a simple sentence: 
the phrase Generally speaking is rather independent, though it stands as the remnant and 
representative of a dependent clause. t This is a simple sentence ; notwithstanding it has a 
compound subject, and a compound predicate with a compound object. 

Complex Sentences. 

Ah ! who can tell how hard it is to climb 

The steep where Fame's proud temple shines afar ?* 

No pleasure can be innocent from which our health suffers. When 
all is composed and quiet within us, the discharge of our duties is easy. 
A writer in physic, of the first rank, asserts that our diet is the chief cause 
of all our diseases. Be not discontented if you meet not with success at 
first. Beware lest thou sin. Show not your teeth, unless you can bite. 
I were to blame, were I to do so. As the flower springs and perishes, so 
does man. The deeper the well, the cooler the water. The value we set 
upon life, is seen by what we do to preserve it. Whatever is done skill- 
fully, appears'to be done well. There is not a more pleasing emotion in 
the heart than gratitude. I went because I was invited. To chirp is 
the first sound that a young bird utters. I consider a human soul, with- 
out education, like a marble in the quarry; which shows none of its inhe- 
rent beauties, until the skill of the polisher fetches out the colors, makes 
the surface shine, and discovers every ornamental cloud, vein, and spot, 
that runs through it. What that principle of life is which we call soul ; 
how it is distinguished from mere animal life ; how it is connected with 
the body ; and in what state it subsists when its bodily functions cease.; — 



130 ANALYSIS OF SENTENSES. 

are among those unsolvable questions with which nature everywhere 
abounds. For additional examples, see pp. 120-9. 

* This is a complex interrogative sentence. The interjection A h is independent in con- 
struction. Who can tell is the principal clause; how hard it is to climb the steep, is tho 
primary dependent clause, which modifies the verb can tell, in the sense of a noun in the ob- 
jective case ; and where Fame's proud temple shines afar, is the secondary dependent clause, 
modifying steep, in the sense of an adjective. 

Clauses of Complex Sentences abridged into Phrases. 

Dependent clauses can frequently be abridged into absolute phrases, participial 
phrases, infinitive phrases, or adjuncts. 

When Caesar had crossed the Rubicon, Pompey prepared for battle 1 . 
Caesar having crossed the Rubicon, Pompey prepared for battle* . Since 
I had nothing else to do, I went*. Having nothing else to do, I went*. 
When I had eaten my dinner, I returned to the store. Having eaten 
my dinner, I returned to the store. She did not know what she should 
say. She did not know what to say. It was requested that he should 
stay. He was requested to stay. I begged him that he would go with 
us. I begged him to go with us. You will suffer from cold, if you re- 
main here. You will suffer from cold, by remaining here. As we 
approached the house, we saw that the enemy were retreating. On 
approaching the house, we saw the enemy retreating. 

Compound Sentences. 

What in me is dark, illumine ; what is low, raise and support.* 
Times change, and we change with them. Connecticut river yields 
the best shad, and Connecticut girls know best how to cook them. At 
this he laughed, and so did we : the jests of the rich are ever successful. 
He said nothing more, nor did I. To be content with what is sufficient, 
is the greatest wisdom ; and he who increases his riches, increases his 
cares ; but a contented mind is a hidden treasure which trouble can not 
find. The son, as well as the father, is expert in business. Strong 
proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction. The slothful man is a bur- 
den to himself; he loiters about, and knows not what to do; his days 
pass away like the shadow of a cloud, and he leaves behind him no mark 
for remembrance ; his body is diseased for want of exercise ; his mind is 
darkened, and his thoughts are confused ; he wishes for action without 
the power to move, and longs for knowledge but has no application. A 
rose — I know not how it came there — lay on my book. 

Man is the rugged lofty pine, 

That frowns o'er many a wave-beat shore; 

Woman's the slender, graceful vine 

Whose clasping tendrils round it twine, 
And deck its rough bark sweetly o'er.f 

* This is a compound imperative sentence, consisting of two complex members. The sub- 
ject of the first member is thou understood; the entire predicate is illumine ichat in me is 
dark, and the predicate-verb is illumine, modified by what in me is dark, as the entire ob- 
ject, and by that, comprehended in what, as the simple object ; that is modified by the adjunct 
in me. Which, comprehended in xohat, is the subject of the dependent clause, and is dark is 
the predicate. (Thus analyze the rest.) t This is a compound declarative sentence, con- 
sisting of two complex members, of which the final clause ia the latter has a compound 
predicate. 



GRAYS ELEGY. 131 



ELEGY 

WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD.* 

I. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; 

The lowing herd wind a slowly o'er the lea; 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 

And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
2. 
Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 

And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, 

And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds ; 
3. 
Save that, from yonder ivy-mantled tower, 

The moping owl does to the moon complain 
Of such, as b , wandering near her secret bower, 

Molest her ancient, solitary reign. 
4. 
Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, 

Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap, 
Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 
5. 
The breezy call of incense-breathing Morn, 

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, 
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 

No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 
6. 
For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, 

Or busy housewife ply her evening care ; 
No children run to lisp their sire's return, 

Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. 
7. 
Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield, 

Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke c ; 
How jocund did they drive their team afield ! 

How bowed the woods beneath their sturdy stroke ! 

* Taken from the author's last edition, and carefully compared with the most important 
editions issued since. 

(a) See Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, p. 211. (b) As is generally a relative pronoun, 
after such, many, or same ; and tliat is a relative pronoun, when it has the sense of who, 
whom, or which. (<0 See Coinp. Gram., p. 334. 



132 gray's elegy. 

8. 
Let not Ambition mock their useful toil, 

Their homely joys, and destiny obscure ; 
Nor Grandeur hear, with a disdainful smile, 

The short and simple annals of the poor. 
9. 
The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 

And all that beauty, all that wealth, e'er gave, 
Await alike the inevitable hour : 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 
10. 
Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault, 

If Memory o'er their tomb no trophies raise, 
Where through the long-drawn aisle and fretted vault 

The pealing anthem swells the note of praise. 
11. 
Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 

Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? 
12. 
Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid 

Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire ; 
Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, 

Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre. 
13. 
But Knowledge to their minds her ample page, 

Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll ; 
Chill Penury repressed their noble rage, 

And froze the genial current of the soul. 
14. 
Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear ; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 
15. 
Some village Hampden, that, with dauntless breast, 

The little tyrant of his field withstood — 
Some mute, inglorious Milton, here may rest; 

Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood. 
16. 
The applause of listening senates to command, 

The threats of pain and ruin to despise, 
To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land, 

And read their history in a nation's eyes, 



gray's elegy. 

17. 

Their lot forbade ; nor circumscribed alone 

Their growing virtues, but their crimes confined, — 

Forbade to wade through slaughter to a throne, 
And shut the gates of mercy on mankind ; 

18. 
The struggling pangs of conscious truth to hide, 

To quench the blushes of ingenuous shame, 
Or heap the shrine of luxury and pride 

With incense kindled at the Muse's flame. 

19. 

Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, 
Their sober wishes never learned to stray ; 

Along the cool, sequestered vale of life 

They kept the noiseless tenor of their way. 

20. 

Yet ev'n these bones from insult to protect, 
Some frail memorial still erected nigh, 

With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture decked, 
Implores the passing tribute of a sigh. 

21. 

Their name, their years, spelt by the unlettered Muse, 

The place of fame and elegy supply ; 
And many a holy text around she strews, 

That teach* the rustic moralist to die. 

22. 

For who, to dumb Forgetfulness a prey, 
This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned, 

Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, 
Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind ? 

23. 

On some fond breast the parting soul relies, 
Some pious drops the closing eye requires ; 

Ev'n from the tomb the voice of Nature cries, 
Ev'n in our ashes live their wonted fires. 

24. 

For thee, who, mindful of the unhonored dead, 
Dost in these lines their artless tale relate ; 

If chance, by lonely Contemplation led, 

Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate, — 

* See stanza 14 ; and Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, p. 834. 



134 gray's elegy. 

25. 

Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, 
" Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn 

Brushing with hasty steps the dews away, 
To meet the sun upon the upland lawn. 

2G. 

"There, at the foot of yonder nodding beech, 
That wreathes its old, fantastic roots so high, 
His listless length at noontide would he stretch, 
And pore upon the brook that bubbles by. 

27. 

" Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn, 
Muttering his wayward fancies he would rove ; 
Now drooping, woeful wan, like one forlorn, 

Or crazed with care, or crossed in hopeless love. 

28. 
"One morn I missed him on the customed hill, 
Along the heath, and near his favorite tree ; 
Another came ; nor yet beside the rill, 

Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood, was he. 

29. 

" The next, with dirges due, in sad array, 

Slow through the church-way path we saw him borne ;- 
Approach and read (for thou canst read) the lay 
Graved on the stone beneath yon aged thorn." 

The Epitaph. 

30. 

Here rests his head, upon the lap of Earth, 
A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown ; 

Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth, 
And Melancholy marked him for her own. 

31. 

Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere, 
Heaven did a recompense as largely send ; 

He gave to Misery (all he had) a tear, 

He gained from Heaven ('twas all he wished) a friend. 

32. 

No farther seek his merits to disclose, 

Or draw his frailties from their dread abode, 

(Where they alike in trembling hope repose,) 
The bosom of his father and his God. 

Gray. 



135 



14. PROSODY. 

Punctuation. 
Punctuation treats of the points or marks used in writing and 
printing. 

The principal marks of punctuation are the following twelve :- 



Period ( . ), 

Colon I (;), 

Semicolon ( ; ), 

Comma ( , ), 

Inierrogation-poird ( ? ), 

Exclamation-point ( ! ), 



Dash ( — ), 

Curves* ( ( ) ), 

Brackets ( [ ] ), 

Hyphen ( - ), 

Quotation-marks ( " " ) or ( ' ' ), 

Underscore ( ). 



The period is put at the end of the sentence ; the colon, the semicolon, 
and the comma, are used within it. The period is the greatest pause- 
mark, the colon the next, the semicolon the next, and the comma tne 
least. 

Ex. — "Some bocks are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to 
be chewed and digested : that is, some books are to be read only in parts ; others 
to be read, but not curiously ; and some few to be read wholly and with dili- 
gence." — Bacon. 

The period is put at the end of every phrase or sentence complete 
by itself, and not interrogative or exclamatory ; also after abbreviations. 
Ex. — " John W. Einggold, Esq., addressed the assembly." 
The colon is followed by something that has been formally prom- 
ised ; or by what adds, to an already complete sentence, an important re- 
mark, illustration, or conclusion. 

Ex. — " Of cruelty to animals let the reader take the following specimen : ' Kun- 
ning an iron hook into the intestines of a live animal;, presenting this animal to 
another as his food ; and then pulling up this second creature, and suspending 
him by the barb in his stomach." — Sidney Smith. 

" Study to acquire the habit of thinking : no study is more important." 
In formal letters or documents, it is now generally placed after the in- 
troductory address ; but, in the familiar style, the comma, or the comma 
with the dash, is commonly preferred. 
Ex. — "Hon. Edward Everett. 

"Dear Sir: 

" I thank you for your, etc. 

" Joseph Story." 
"Dear Sir, 

" The latest news from Boston, giving information of, etc. 

"James Madison." 
" George W. Taylor, Esq. 

" Dear Sir, 

"As you write me to give," etc. 
" George "W". Taylor, Esq. — Dear Sir : As you write me to give my opinion,'' 
etc. — The Printer. 

The semicolon separates parts of a sentence that are too closely 
related for the colon, and too loose in sense for the comma, or that have 
the comma within them ; and sometimes it separates clauses or phrases 
similarly construed, and accumulated into one sentence. 

Ex. — " That the world is overrun with vice, can not be denied ; but vice, how- 
ever predominant, has not yet gained unlimited doininion." — Johnson. " He is, 



136 PROSODY. 

indeed, a horse ; and all other jades you may call beasts. — Shakespeare. M Every 

thing has its time to flourish ; every thing grows old ; every thing passes away. 

"Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull." — Denham. 

The comma is used where a slight pause is needed. 

1. Three or more serial terms, or two terms without their connective, 
are separated by the comma. 

Ex. — "Hedges, groves, orchards, and gardens, were in bloom." "Far above 
us towered an iron-bound coast, dark, desolate, barren, and precipitous, against 
which the long, rolling swell of the Pacific broke with a dull and disheartening 
roar." So, where the verb is understood ; as, " Indolence produces poverty ; and 
poverty, misery.' 1 '' 

Two long predicate phrases, even when the conjunction is expressed, are also generally 
separated; as, " The prairies of Iowa are covered with a rich coat of grass, and not unfre- 
quently interspersed with hazel thickets." 

2. Two parts, when contrasted or emphatically distinguished, or when 
a part of one might be improperly referred also to the other, are separated 
by the comma. 

Ex. — " To soften, not to wound, the heart." " It is used so, but erroneously." 
"He holds, and ever has held, the legal title." " Othello, and Prince Hainlet." 
"He retreated, and loaded his gun." 

3. A word, phrase, or clause, that is parenthetic, or that breaks the 
connection of parts closely related, is set off by the comma. 

Ex. — " Moral culture, especially in youth, is of the greatest importance." " They 
set out early, and, before the dawn of day, arrived at the destinsd place." " Ad- 
jectives, when something depends on them, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by 
the comma." 

4. A phrase used as an adverbial or adjective element and adding a 
distinct idea, is set off by the comma when it is not in close connection 
with what it modifies, and especially when removed from it by inversion. 

Ex. — "In a central region, \ midway on the continent, \ though somewhat nearer 
the Pacific than the Atlantic Ocean, \ at an elevation of nearly 7,500 feet, | lies the 
remarkable valley of Mexico, encircled by a colossal rampart of the hardest rocks, \ 
and forming a circumference of about 67 leagues, \ with a sky of the deepest Hue, a 
serene atmosphere, and a magnificent landscape. Apply, also, rules 3d, 2d, and 1st. 

But when such a phrase is merely restrictive, and stands in close connection 
with what it modifies, it is not usually set off; as, " Gladly would I pour into thy 
bosom | the balm of consolation.' 1 '' "What is restrictive, merely modifies an idea; what 
is not restrictive, adds an idea, or is explanatory. 

5. Independent or absolute words, and words in apposition, are gen- 
erally, with what belongs to them, set off by the comma. See pp. 7, 32, 35, 45. 

Ex. — " And so, Don Gomez, you will accompany us." " Shame being lost, all 
virtue is lost." " 0, yes, sir, I do." " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles.'''' 

6. A merely explanatory noun after or, or a part relating to each of 
two or more separated parts, is set off by the comma. 

Ex. — " The marmot, or ground-hog, resembles the raccoon." " This is the first, 
though perhaps not the bes't, of my books.'" 

7. The comma is used to separate the clauses of a compound sen- 
tence, when they are too closely related for the semicolon. 

Ex. — " Columbus, who discovered America, was a Genoese." " There moun- 
tains rise, and circling oceans flow." 

But when a clause or phrase is restrictive, that is, depends closely on 
something else, in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, it is 
not set off. 

Ex. — " He was a man | whom nothing could turn aside from the path | wliich 



PROSODY. 13 7 

duty pointed out." (Restrictive relative clauses.) "I will sell you whatever you 
wish to buy.' 1 '' " It is probable that you are very nearly right?' 1 "Go when it suits you.'''' 

§. When the entire subject is a clause, or a long participial or infinitive 
phrase ; when it has a clause, a long adjunct or other similar phrase, or parts 
requiring the comma; when it ends with a verb, or with a noun that might im- 
properly be read as the nominative ; or when a word precedes the verb, that 
would otherwise be of doubtful character or reference, — it seems best to separate 
the subject from its predicate. 

Ex. — " That one bad example spoils many good precepts, is well known." " He that has 
much nose, thinks every one speaks of it." " Whatever improves him, delights him." "To 
be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character." " For me to furnish 
him so large and expensive an outfit, is utterly impossible. 1 ' "His having been seen in the 
neighborhood, was the ground of suspicion." "Honor, wealth, and pleasure, seduce the 
heart." " Necessity, that great excuse for human frailty, breaks through all law." There is 
a strong tendency to omit the comma from before the predicate of such sentences as the first 
seven of the foregoing. 

9. "When the predicate-nominative is a long clause or infinitive phrase, and 
immediately follows the verb be, it is usually set off by the comma, especially 
when it has the air of importance, and might be made the subject. 

Ex. — " One of the greatest secrets in composition is, to know when to be simple." " The 
consequence is, that most animals have acquired a fear of man." " The question that is to 
be discussed to-night, is, ' "Would the Extension of our Territory endanger the Perpetuity of 
our Government ? ' " 

The interrogation-point is placed after every direct question. 
Ex. — " What books do you like best?" But, "He asked me what books I 
like best." 

The exclamation-point is placed after what expresses some 
sudden or strong feeling ; as, surprise, wonder, joy, grief, anger, or horror. 

Ex. — " Left his bed and board! He never had any !" 

It is also placed after unusually earnest or solemn addresses, and gen- 
erally after interjections. 

Ex.— " Spare me, O merciful God!" "Ah! few shall part where many 
meet." 

The dash generally denotes emphasis or unusual structure. 

1. It is placed after what is left unfinished, generally from interruption. 
Ex. — " 'Herb lies the great' — False marble ! where?" — Young. 

2. It is generally used in sentences that are fragmentary and emo- 
tional. 

Ex. — " The pulse fluttered — stopped — went on — throbbed — stopped again — 
moved — stopped. — Shall I go on ? — No." — Sterne. 

3. Ifc is used to show an unexpected turn in the sentence; and, in 
dialogue without names or breaks, it marks the transition from one speaker 
to another. See last example. 

Ex. — " If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how de- 
graded V— Milton. 

4. It is now generally used to set off a parenthesis, especially when 
emphatic, or when there are other points within it. 

Ex. — " He was dressed — and, indeed, so were they nearly all — in coarse home- 
spun." 

5. It is often used before echoes, or where that is or namely is under- 
stood ; and also after a loose series of particulars, leading to an important 
conclusion. 

Ex. — " Angry thoughts canker the mind to the worst temper in the world,— 
that of fixed malice ana revenge." See 8th rule, under comma. 



138 PROSODY. 

6. It is placed after side-heads, and generally before authorities when 
in the same line with the end of the paragraph. 

Ex. — " The Abuse of the Imagination. — He who can not command his thoughts, 
must not hope to control his actions." — Jane Taylor. 

The curves enclose something thrown in hastily or incidentally, and so 
little related to the chief matter that it may be omitted. 

Ex. — " Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the proud man him- 
self), is the most ordinary spring of action among men." — John, Wilson. 

The !> rackets [the writer means the hooks used in printing] enclose 
what is inserted by another person ; but authors sometimes enclose with them 
their own explanations, especially when these stand detached, or by themselves. 
[Broxhium, in Latin, denotes an arm.] 

The fliy'plieil is placed at the end of a syllable of a word so long that a 
part of it must be put into the next line. It is also used to separate the parts 
of compound words that do not coalesce, in pronunciation, like mere syllables 
of the same word ; as, tender-hearted, electro-magnetism. 

The quotation-marks enclose what is formally presented as the lan- 
guage of another person. : ' Single quotation-marks enclose a ' quotation within 
a quotation'." 

The underscore is a line used only in writing. It is drawn under 
words once, to denote slanting or Italic letters; twice, to denote small cap- 
itals ; three times, to denote CAPITALS ; and four times, to denote ITALIC 

CAPITALS. "Words are thus printed for the sake of emphasis or distinction. 

Capital Letters. 

[This subject does not properly belong to either Punctuation or Prosody. It is inserted here, 
merely because this seems the best place for it.] 

A capital letter should begin — 

1. The first word of every distinct sentence or phrase. 

2. The first word of every direct quotation or saying. See p. 103. 

3. The first word of every line of poetry. See p. 131. 

4. Every name of the Deity ; as, the Almighty, the Supreme Being. 
Also personal pronouns when applied to the Deity, except when used in connection with 

their antecedents ; as, " I turn to Thee." " God provides for all his creatures." 

5. Every proper name, and the titles that may be used with it ; each 
chief word of a phrase used like a proper name ; and most w T ords derived 
from proper names. 

6. Titles of office, honor, or distinction ; also any very important word, 
especially when it denotes the principal subject of discourse. 

7. The name of an object personified, when it is used like a proper 
noun ; as, " Grave I where is thy victory ?" 

8. The words / and should always be capitals. 

Figures. 

A met'aplior is the name of one object given to another, on ac- 
count of some resemblance between the objects. 

Ex. — " The ear of a pot" looks like an ear on a head ; but the " key of an arith- 
metic" does not look like a key, yet it serves to unlock the mysteries of the arith- 
metic. " Life is an isthmus between two eternities." 

A metoii'ymy is the name of one object given to another, on ac- 
count of some relation between the objects. The chief of these relations 



PROSODY. 139 

are those of cause and effect, container and thing contained, sign and thing 



Ex. — "I have read Shakespeare ;" i. e., hi8 works. " We drank but one bottle;" 
■t. e. 3 what was in one bottle. " My son, give me thy heart;" i. e., thy affections. 
" Here the sword and sceptre rust ; 
Earth to earth, and dust to dust !" — Groly. 

Synec'doclie is the figure by which we give the name of a part 
to the whole, or that of the whole to a part. 

Ex. — " "We bought a hundred head of sheep." " Give us, this day, our daily 
oread ;" i. <?., our food. " They paid my price in paltry gold ;" i. e., in money. 

Nearly one half of all the meanings of words are but faded figures, — • 
faded metaphors, faded metonymies, faded synecdoches. 

Versification, 
Versif icatioM is the act or the art of making verse. 

Verse is beautiful language keeping time like music. 

Yerse consists of measured lines, each having seldom les3 than two syl- 
lables or more than twenty-two. 

Each measure consists of two or three syllables, has a stress, or accent, 
on the first or the last syllable, and is called a foot. 

The principal feet are four ; the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, and 
the dactyl. 

Iambic verse is divisible into little portions of two syllables each, accented 
on the second syllable ; anapestic verse, of three syllables each, accented on 
the last syllable; trochaic verse, of two syllables each, accented on the 
first syllable ; and dactylic verse, of three syllables each, accented on the 
first syllable. 

Iambic Verse.— 1. Afar. 2. The stars shone bright. 3. Thou moon that riil'st 
the night. 4. The woods are hushed, the waters rest. 5. How sweet, at eve, the 
village murmur rose ! 6. The dew was falling fast, the stars began to blink. 7. 
The flames that lit the battle's wreck, shone round him o'er the dead. 

Anapestic Verse.— 1. Erom afar. 2. Like a rose pearled in dew. 3. I am mon- 
arch of all I survey. 4. At the close of the day when the hamlet is still. 

Trochaic Verse.— 1. Turning. 2. Gently flowing. 3. Go where glory waits 
thee. 4. Do not say that life is fleeting. 5. Come, 0, come with me ; the moon 
is beaming. 6. On' a mountain stretched beneath a hoary willow. 7. Let us seek 
the grassy bank by lofty maples shaded. 8. Beams of noon, like burning lances, 
through the tree-tops flash and glisten. 

Dactylic Verse.— 1. Fearfully. 2. Bird of the wilderness. 3. Pleasures in end- 
less variety. 4. Could he but have a glimpse into futurity. 

To each of the foregoing species of lines, we sometimes find a part of 
another foot added. 

Ex. — " Eestless mortals toil for naught.' 1 ' 1 

"Far adown the long aisle sacred music is stream-^." 

Most verse is still further divided into agreeable portions, by making 
some of the feet, or parts of feet, answer to each other by similarity of 
sound. These corresponding sounds are called rhymes, and they occur usu- 
ally at the ends of the lines. Verse that has no rhyme, is called blank verse. 

What can you say of Punctuation ? The points in general ? The period ? The colon ? 
The semicolon ? The comma ? The interrogation-point ? The exclamation-point ? The 
dash? The curves? The brackets? The hyphen? The underscore? Capital letters? 
Metaphor? Metonymy? Synecdoche? The meanings of words? Versification? Verse? 
Feet? Iambic verse? Anapestic? Trochaic? Dactylic? Examples. Of syllables that 
overrun the line ? Rhyme ? Blank verse ? 



140 CAPITAL LETTERS. EXERCISES. 

&g- The subject of capital letters and that of punctuation, when taught merely by rules, and a 
few examples to illustrate them, are not sufficiently tangible to be comprehended by pupils ; I have 
therefore annexed a series of exercises, that, I trust, will teach the pupil more about these things than 
is generally learned from grammars. , 

Capital Letters.— Exercises. 

Copy the following examples, and apply the rules given onf). 138 for the vte of cap- 
ital letters ; also correct the examples which are incorrect, or the paragraphs which fol- 
low the stars: — 

1 . No, my son ; a life of independence is generally a life of virtue. It is that 
which fits the soul for every generous flight of humanity, freedom, and friend- 
ship. Do not serenity, health, and plenty attend the desire of rising by labor ? 
Lovely, far more lovely, is the sturdy gloom of laborious poverty than the fawn- 
ing smile of flattery ; and the man who can thank himself alone for the happi- 
ness he enjoys, is truly blest. 

* this terrible chasm must be filled up. but how ? here is a list of proprie- 
tors, choose from the wealthiest, in order that the smallest number of citizens 
may be sacrificed. 

" The gunpowder overboard 1 Out with the boat. Here." 

* for Rent or Sale. total, $25. balance, $9.25. 

Exercises. 

2. Solomon said, " Pride goeth before destruction." They shouted, "Vic- 
tory!" He answered, No. Christianity does not spread a feast before us, and 
then come with a "Touch not, taste not, handle not." One truth is clear: 
Whatever is, is right. 

Resolved, That we endorse the course pursued by our delegates, etc. 

* Remember this ancient maxim : "know thyself." And, "this to me I" 
lie said. Every tongue shall exclaim with heart-felt joy, welcome, welcome ! 
La Fayette. The question, then, will naturally arise, how is the desired im- 
provement to be effected ? Ah ! that maternal smile, it answers — yes. 

Be it enacted, that, after the 1st of August, 1862, a tax, etc. 

Exercises. 

3* Now bright the sunbeam on St. Lawrence smiles, 

Her million lilies, and her thousand isles. 
* Believe not each aspersing tongue, 
as most weak people do ; 
but still conclude that story wrong 
which ought not to be true. 

Exercises. 

4. The Most High ; the Infinite One ; Providence ; the All-wise ; the Son 
of God ; our Lord Jesus Christ ; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; God 
and his angels. To Him be the honor and the glory. Ob, give relief, and 
Heaven will bless your store. The Son of man shall come in the glory of his 
Father. 

* The holy spirit ; the eternal ; the omnipotent ; the king of kings, and lord 
of lords ; the judge of the world ; our creator ; our savior ; great parent of 
good. thou all-seeing searcher of our hearts ! To him who is the friend 
of the widow and the orphan. 

"When the words heaven and hell are used in their most ordinary sense, they 
begin with small letters ; but when used in a specific sense, or when Heaven 
denotes God, they begin with capitals. The Indian always says, " Great Spirit," 
or uses both words to denote God ; but when Pope wrote, " Thou great First 



CAPITAL LETTERS. EXERCISES. 141 

Cause," he used great in its ordinary descriptive sense. The King of kings shows 
preeminently God's relation to worldly kings ; but the Angel of Death does not 
show the relation of any angel to death. The Devil denotes Satan ;■ but a devil 
may be simply a bad person or spirit. When the words god, goddess, deity, 
divinity, etc., are applied to the heathen deities, they do not begin with capitals. 
When Muses, Graces, Naiads, etc., are regarded in the splendor of ancient im- 
agination, they are generally favored with capitals ; but our own fairies, sylphs, 
ghosts, hobgoblins, etc., are rather too puny and undignified in idea to be thus 
distinguished. 

Exercises. 

5. Thomas, Susan, Dr. Jno. B. Johnson, Mrs. Elizabeth B. Browning, Mon 
day, Tuesday, January, February, New York, Pennsylvania, United States, 
Sandwich Islands, Isle of Man, Long Island, American, Americanism, Roman, 
Italics, Christian, Jesuits. This out-Herods Herod himself. A Southern man 
is from the South. 

* george, mary, sunday; friday, kentucky, tennessee, august, sept. 10th, rev. 
henry 1. gaylor, mr. jones, north America, cape fear, christmas, frenchified, irish- 
man, Columbia, maj. holt; jas. m. marlow, esq. 

When words derived from proper names have assumed ordinary meanings of 
the language, and lost their reference to the proper names, they are not usually 
capitalized ; as, turkey, guinea, damask, colossal, daguerreotype, galvanize, cham- 
pagne, china-ware. 

Proper names consist chiefly of the names of persons, places, and time. They are there- 
fore very numerous, amounting to millions. And since it is not always easy to make a new 
and acceptable proper name, a common word or phrase of the language, whose meaning is 
Bupposed to suit, is often taken and made a sort of proper name. 

A new proper name is often made from an old one, by the addition of some com- 
mon word ; and the common word then generally begins with a capital letter. 

Orleans, New Orleans; Cambridge, East Cambridge; Clinton, Governor Clin- 
ton ; Jefferson, Jefferson City ; Madison, Madison Square ; Astor, Astor House ; 
Yernon, Mount Vernon ; Pike, Pike's Peak ; Mexico, the Gulf of Mexico ; Magel- 
lan, the Strait of Magellan ; Britain, the British Channel. 

* Rhode island, Miller's landing, lower California, new Hampshire, Japan 
sea, Harper's ferry, mount Mitchel, Apollo garden, Lafayette place, Hudson's 
bay, the bay of Honduras, William and Mary's college, the Indian ocean, lake . 
Ontario, point Barrow, Cook's inlet, Behring's strait, Queen Charlotte's sound. 

When a common word or phrase of the language is raised to the dignity of a 
_ proper name for a particular object, the word or chief words begin with capital 
letters. 

The Park, Salt River, Great Bear Lake, Lake Superior, the Black Sea, Big 
Sandy, Land's End, the Cape of Good Hope, the United States, the Western 
States, the Mountains of the Moon, the Old South Church, the City Hall, a book 
called— The Temple of Truth. 

* The laurel hills, the dead sea, white river, sandy hook, a hill called cedar 
crest, the lake of the woods, point lookout, the five points, pea ridge, the white 
sulphur springs, the rocky mountains, union square, central park ; on fifth avenue, 
near spruce street. 

The two principles just given, express what seems to be the best usage according to anal- 
ogy and custom ; many writers, however, use not more capital letters than seem absolutely 
necessary to distinguish the designated objects from others of the same kind. 

When objects are very common and comparatively insignificant, we often find 
that only the specific words, and not the general words — especially when the 
latter are plural — begin with capital letters; as, "in Cass and Butler counties." 
The words county, township, hill, creek, river, when used in connection with spe- 



142 CAPITAL LETTERS. EXERCISES. 

cific words, are not generally commenced with capital letters. Street we find 
written — Fifth Street, Fifth and Madison Streets ; Fifth-street, Walnut- street, Fifth 
and Walnut streets (the hyphen being omitted from the plural phrase, to show the 
common reference of streets to the two words before it) ; and, lastly, Fifth .street. 
The first two modes are best authorized. The same remark applies occasionally 
to such words as place, square, house, church, etc. But, in all cases, when the 
specific word is also a common word of the language, the tendency is, to begen tlce 
general word with a capital letter too. 

Callaway county is usually called Callaway ; but Kansas City is not called 
Kansas. The Ohio river is as well denoted by the Ohio, which is a sufficient 
name to call it by, and which implies the word river ; but the lied River is not 
called the Red, nor is the Blue Ridge ever called the Blue, for it takes both words 
to make the name. The city of New York, or Neiu-York city, is generally called 
New York ; but Jersey City needs both words to make the name. Van Hiemau's 
Land is not the land belonging to Van Diemen. The lake of Nicaragua is tho 
lake belonging to Nicaragua ; but the Lake of Nicaragua is merely a name ; so, 
the Grecian Archipelago, til-abbe's Prairie was once Crabbe's prairie. Sutlers 
Mill is now a little town, and the mill is washed away. The London Times is a 
newspaper, and London times are something else. Tho Planter's House is simply 
a hotel, and not the house of a planter. The Missouri railroad is a railroad in 
Missouri ; but the Missouri Railroad could be located anywhere. We can see 
white mountains in almost any mountainous country ; but the White Mountains 
are in New Hampshire. The South Pass denotes not only a pass, but also a 
locality. Niagara Falls means not merely a fall of water. The Erie Canal is 
wholly a name ; but the Erie and Ohio canal is understood as being simply tho 
canal between Lake Erie and the Ohio river. The phrases Elegy in a Country 
Churchyard, Battle of Hohenlinden, The Task, are as much the names of particu- 
lar poems, as John, James, and Henry, are the names of particular boys. Lord's 
Hay is equivalent to Sunday ; and New- Year's Hay, the Fourth, Good Friday, 
or any other holiday, is as much a particular day as Sunday, Monday, or any 
other day of the week. 

Exercises. 

6. The President, the Vice-President, the Senate, and tho LTouse of Repre- 
sentatives ; Daniel Webster, Secretary of State ; the City Council ; the Board of 
Directors for the Southern Bank ; the Vigilance Committee ; the Democracy of 
New Orleans; the Catholics and Protestants ■ a Methodist; the Supreme Court; 
the Navy Department ; tho Auditor of Public Accounts; the Tax Bill; Tho 
guests were entertained by Mayor Rice, at his residence, No. 34, Union Place. 
The flag bore this motto : The Union, the Constitution, and the enforcement of 
the Laws. "You are old, Father William," the young man replied. Begin 
your letter thus : Dear Sir, Dear Brother, or. My dear Aunt, etc. 

* Alexander the great; Charles the second; To Jos. Aikin, esq.; To tho 
secretary of the interior department ; gen. Scott and col. Richardson ; tho 
southern states ; the fourth number of the new monthly ; John Bull to brother 
Jonathan. 

When I speak of the Company or the Convention, I mean to guard you 
against thinking of the wrong one, or to make you think of a particular one. 
The Insurrection was printed with a capital, only while the excitement lasted ; 
but the Revolution and the Reformation are still matters of interest, and retain 
their capitals. Our Constitution does not refer to our health, nor does our State 
refer to our condition. Missouri is a part of the South, though it lies west. If 
the North, East, South, and West, make the United States, then one of these 
states is a State. The Lunatic Asylum is a particular and distinguished institu- 
tion in our State, though there are lunatic asylums in most parts of the world. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. EXERCISES. 143 

"I went with him to visit the Lakes;" that is, a celebrated group of lakes. 
Macaulay calls Satan, the Tewpter, the Evil Principle • and he also writes, " the 
mercenary warriors of the Peninsula," applying the word in a specific sense, or 
to Spain and Portugal. If I should use the phrase Old Dominion as a specific 
substitute for the proper name Virginia, I would use capital letters ; but if I 
should merely call Goldsmith's Deserted Village Goldsmith's great poem, I would 
not begin the latter words with capitals. We must often judge whether the 
specific or titular sense, or the ordinary meaning of the words, is uppermost in 
the mind, and use capitals or small letters accordingly. Webster's Speeches 
refers to a book, or to their title ; while Webster's speeches refers simply to the 
speeches. A chapter in your history refers to your life ; but a chapter in your 
History refers to a book so named. When I speak of the principal of a school, 
I refer to his duties ; but when I speak of the Principal of a school, I refer to 
his title. ''Part I, Remark, Observations, Rules of Spelling," refer to certain 
divisions or headings of a book. Our Club, President, Treasurer, and Secretary, 
are such in title as well as in fact. The London Times says, " Her Majesty, the 
Prince Consort, the Bride, the Prince of Wales, and other members of the Royal 
Family, were present." Common folks would not have been thus honored with 
capitals. An astronomer writes, " The Sun is the centre of the System," be- 
cause these capitalized words denote subjects of which he treats. And mer- 
chants, in their accounts, generally begin with capital letters thb. names of those 
things in which they deal. 

When entire phrases or sentences are made headings, or otherwise made promi- 
nent, only the nouns, the descriptive adjectives, and other important words, are be- 
gun with capitals. 

Advertisement. — "Just published. A Collection of Songs, Duets, Trios, and 
Choruses. Together with a New and Complete Course of Elementary Instruc- 
tion, and Lessons in Singing, for the School-room and Social Circle. Price 62 J 
cents." In Advertisements and Notices, the liberty of capitalizing is carried to a 
great and almost indefinite extent. 

Exercises. 

7. The Wind and the Sun loved the Rose, 

But the Rose loved but one ; 
For who recks the wind where it blows, 
Or loves not the sun ? — Bulwer. 
* I hate w r hen vice can bolt her arguments, 
And virtue has no tongue to check her pride. 
Pride, poverty, and fashion, once undertook to keep house together 

Exercises. 

8. 0, I understand you now. 

* He knew i was there. Such, o music ! is thy heavenly power. 



The pupil may have noticed, that the names of the days of the week and 
months of the year ; the chief words in the titles of books ; the names of sects, 
farties, and associations; and, generally, the names of public bodies — as, Senate, 
the General Assembly, — are capitalized. 

lie may also observe, that rules 1st and 2d, are fundamentally one, applying 
to distinct phrases or sentences ; rules 3d and 8th, implying distinction ; and 
rules 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7 th, since the words merely designate, or designate hon- 
orably, rather than describe by their ordinary meaning. 

Capital letters should not be used, where small letters will express the sense 
as well or better 



144 PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 

Punctuation.— Exercises. 
Period. 

Copy the following examples, and apply the rules ; also correct what is incor- 
rect, or the paragraphs after the stars : — 

As yet, the forests stand clothed in their dress of undecayed magnificence. 
The winds, that rustle through their tops, scarcely dis'.urb the silence of the 
shades below. The mountains and the valleys glow in sunlit verdure. 

* give, then, generously and freely recollect, that, in so doing, you are exer- 
cising one of the most godlike qualities in your nature go home, and look at 
your families, smiling in rosy health, and then think of the pale, famine-pinched 
cheeks of the poor children of Ireland — >S» S Prentiss 

For Sale. Opinions of the Press. Dr. Chas. F. Persinger, Chairman, 
St. Louis, Aug. 1st, 1857. To the Hon. Jas. Fenton. 

* Preface Contents Apollo Garden From tho Gentleman's Magazine 
" H. Clay Select Speeches of 8vo Price $1.00." 

Albany, N". Y., Sept., 1860. Henry Holmes, Esq., addressed tho assembly. 
Sir David Brewster, K. H., LL.D., F. R. S., L. & E. I have two good reasons: 
1. I can not give my attention to it; 2. I have no money to invest in it. 
15.3 yds. of cloth, for $9.45. (The period is also used to separate decimals 
from whole numbers, and after enumerative figures or letters.) 

* T S Glover, Esq, was called to the chair To Mr and Mrs Lindsay Dr 
"Wm R Rector, Sup't of Com Schools On the 4th inst, he disappeared is cwt 
2 qrs 5 lbs Let us consider — 1 Its soil ; 2 Its climate 40 chickens, @> 
12c each, cost $480 

Colon.— Exercises. 

Make a proper use of time : the loss of it can never be regained. 
Make a proper use of time ; for the loss of it can never be regained. 

* Avoid affectation it is a contemptible weakness. 

Honor and shame from no condition rise 
Act well your part ; there all the honor lies. 
The grant was absolute and conclusive : it conceded the land and the islands ; 
the rivers and the harbors ; the mines and the fisheries. (Here the sense is, 
How so ? "Why so ? Explain more fully what you mean.) There are two 
questions which grow out of this subject : 1st, How far is any sort of classical 
education useful ? 2dly, How far is that particular classical education adopted 
in this country useful ? 

* The procession was as follows The President, the Yice-President, tho 
Speaker of the House, etc. All our conduct toward others should be in- 
fluenced by this important principle Do unto others as you would have them 
do unto you. 

This is the state of man to-day he puts forth 
The tender leaves of hope ; to-morrow blossoms, 
And bears his blushing honors thick upon him ; 
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost. 

Semicolon.— Exercises. 

"W ithout dividing, ho destroyed party ; without corrupting, he made a venal 
age unanimous. 

* The miser grows rich by seeming poor but the extravagant man grows 
poor by seeming rich. 

A salad should be, as to its contents, multifarious ; as to its proportions, an 
artistic harmony ; as to its flavor, of a certain pungent tasta 



PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 145 

* False in institutions, for he retrograded false in policy, for he debased 
false in morals, for he corrupted. Listen to the advice of your parents treasure 
up their precepts respect their riper judgment and endeavor to merit the appro- 
bation of the wise and good. 

This lovely land, this glorious liberty, these benign institutions, are ours.; 
ours to enjoy, ours to preserve, ours to transmit. Mercer was upright, intelli- 
gent, and brave ; esteemed as a soldier and beloved as a man, and by none 
more than by Washington. He is my major-domo ; that is, my steward over 
household affairs. 

* Among the oaks I observed many of the most diminutive size some not 
above a foot in height, yet bearing bunches of acorns. Charles the Twelfth, 
of Sweden born, 1682 killed by a cannon-ball, 1718. Rio, 9 cents Mara- 
caibo, 12 cents Java, 15 cents. 

"I have always," says Ledyard, " remarked that women in all countries are 
civil and obliging ; that they are ever inclined to be gay and cheerful, timorous 
and modest ; and that they do not hesitate, like men, to perform a generous 
action." 

* If thou art a child, and hast ever added a sorrow to the soul or a furrow 
to the silvered brow of an affectionate parent if thou art a husband, and hast 
ever caused the fond bosom that ventured its whole happiness in thy arms, to 
doubt ono moment of thy kindness or truth if thou art a friend, and hast ever 
wrongod in thought, or word, or deed, the spirit that generously confided in thee, 
— then be Eure that every unkind look, every ungracious word, every ungentle 
action, wDl come thronging back upon thy memory, and knocking dolefully at 
thy soul then be sure that thou wilt lie down sorrowing and repentant on the 
grave, and utter the unheard groan, and pour the unavailing tear, more deep, 
more bitter, because unavailing. 

" The pride of wealth is contemptible ; the pride of learning is pitiable ; the pride of 
dignity is ridiculous ; but the pride of bigotry is insupportable." Here the dash would 
have been too sentimental ; the comma would have slurred the matter over too lightly ; the 
colon would have indicated a different connection in thought; the period would havo 
been too deliberate ; but the semicolon gives due distinction to the parts, and the greatest 
energy to the whole. 

Comma.— Rule I.— Exercises. 

Days, months, years, and ages, shall circle away, 
And still the vast waters above thee shall roll. 
The little, round buds unfolded into broad white leaves. From law arises 
security ; and from security, industry. 

* This part of Arabia is populous and fertile ; yielding oranges lemons 
almonds dates figs raisins honey and an abundance of corn cattle sheep and the 
finest of horses. The little ragged untaught child made me think of the little 
lonely blossom that is born to wintry days. Hamilton was more declamatory 
imaginative and poetical ; Burr clear pointed concise and compact. 

The white-washed wall the nicely sanded floor 
The varnished clock that clicked behind the door. 

"John, James and William are going to town," implies that I am telling John what the 
other two boys are doing ; and should therefore be, " John, James, and William, are going to 
town." 

Rule II— Exercises. 

Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand. We often commend, as well as 
censure, imprudently. "Was it you, or the wind, that shut the door? Ho 
should, and shall, relinquish his claim. The gleam of the ocean, and vast prai- 
ries of verdure, were before me. 

* Though grave yet trifling ; though submissive vain. John and also hia 



146 PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 

sister went into tho country. Is he sick or well ? They not only attacked 
but also captured tne army and city. Here all is order ; there all is discord. 
'Twas certain he couid write and cipher too. He went and addressed tho 
crowd. The troops landed and killed a hundred Indians. 

Rule III.— Exercises. 

No society, of which moral men are not the stamina, can exist long. There, 
lightly swung, in bowery glades, the honeysuckles twine. They knew their 
powers not, or, as they learned to know, perverted them to evil. 

* Burns however to be justly judged must be estimated by the times in which 
he lived. She is to be sure a very amiable woman. A virgin of eighteen tall 
and straight bright and blooming seems to our old age a very delightful object. 

Common parenthetic expressions are such as on the contrary, by no means, icithout 
doubt, in general, now and then, in short, for tlie most part, beyond question, generally 
speaking, etc. 

Rule IV.— Exercises. 

Tired of his toilsome flight, and parched with heat, 
He spied, at length, a cavern's cool retreat. 
The work is probably not worth the labor and care spent upon it. 

* From the hills in his jurisdiction he could behold across the clear waters of 
a placid sea the magnificent vegetation of Porto Rico which distance rendered 
still more admirable as it was seen through the transparent atmosphere of the 
tropic3. 

The ship Ann Alexander a stanch vessel Captain S. Deblow sailed from Xew 
Bedford the 1st of June 1850 for a cruise in the South Pacific in search of whales. 

Rule V.— Exercises. 

Friend John, what is wanted ? And now, sir, what is your conclusion ? 
No, no, Gerald ; there are too many of them already. Nocturnal silence reign- 
ing, a nightingale began. To be a merchant, the art consists more in getting 
paid than in making sales. 

"Wept o'er his wounds, or, tales of sorrow done, 
Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won. 

* To you Osman I consign half the city; and to you Mustapha the remain- 
der The terms being settled he produced the cash. Front to front their 
horns locked every muscle strained they were fighting as bulls only can fight. 
"Well to be sure how much I have fagged through ! 

Rule VI.— Exercises. 

The skull, or cranium, protects the brain. Again, we conceive that natural 
religion, though not a demonstrative, is yet a progressive, science. 

* The English dove or cushat is noted for its cooing or murmuring. This 
street is an important if not the principal highway in tho city. 

Rule VII.— Exercises. 

How wretched, were I mortal, were my state ! The rain fell in sheets, tho 
thunder rolled, the lightning flashed fierce and lurid, and the wind swept in 
gusts over the thicket as if it would uproot it altogether. This small group of 
our wounded, who were left behind, were captured by a patty which lay in am- 
bush. 

* Since life is short let us not be too solicitous about the future. The farmer 
who had never been in a city before and who was therefore most easily duped 
at once bid on the watch. The variety of wild fruits and flowering shrubs is 



PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 147 

so great and such the profusion of blossoms with "which they are bowed down 
ihat the eye is regaled almost to satiety. 

Rule VIII.— Exercises. 

"What pleases, soon becomes popular. He who is much in love with him- 
self, will have few rivals. To be always attentively observing what is passing 
around them, is one of the means by which men improve their circumstances. 

* To maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life marks a great 
mind. Family feuds violated friendships and litigation among neighbors are 
the banes of society. Divide and conquer is a golden principle equally appli- 
cable in science and in policy. 

Rule IX.— Exercises. 

But the question is, are the examples correct in syntax ? All that a man 
gets by lying, is, that he is not believed when he tells the truth. That it is so, 
can not be denied. 

* The great mystery about the theft was that the door was still found locked 
as before. Our intention is to start early in the morning. 



Finally, the comma is put after a word repeated ; as, " Home, home ! sweet, 
sweet home I" after a surname followed by the given name ; as, " Tyler, George 
W." : used to separate numbers into periods; as, Population of the United 
States, 31,443,790 : used to separate words in pairs, that are construed in pairs; 
as, " Old and young, rich and poor, high and low, attended the meeting :" 
sometimes used, or not used, according as a word has a conjunctive or an ad- 
verbial sense ; as, "On these facts, then, I then rested my argument:" omitted 
from expressions of close apposition; as, ''Allen the bookseller," "the poet 
Milton," "ye mountains." 

Interrogation-point. — Exercises. 

"Well, James, what have you got there ? " They say, if the bill is rejected, 
Government must stop. What must stop ? The laws ? The judicial tribunals ? 
The legislative bodies ? The institutions of the country ? No, no, sir ! all these 
will remain, and go on." He asked me why I wept. He asked me, " Why 
do you weep ?" Let us consider, first, of what use will it be ? and, secondly, 
what will it cost ? Let us consider, first, of what use it will be ; and, secondly, 
what it will cost. 

* " Is this reason Is it law Is it humanity" " Will you go" said he, 
" or will you stay" Is the law constitutional is the question for discussion 
Whether the law is constitutional is the question for discussion Dr. Johnson 
wrote, " When Diog'enes was asked what wine he liked best? he answered, 
That which is drunk at the expense of others." Is this sentence correctly 
punctuated 

Exclamation-point.— Exercises, 

Lo ! Newton, priest of Nature, shines afar, 
Scans the wide world, nnd numbers every star ! 
home ! magical, all-powerful home ! how strong must have been thy in- 
fluence, when thy faintest memory could cause these bronzed heroes of a thou- 
sand battles to weep like children ! What, ho ! Endymion, sleepest thou so 
soundly? Macbeth, Macbeth, Macbeth ! beware McDuff! " Banished from 
Rome !" What's banished but set free from daily contact of the things I 
loathe ? 

* Absalom, Absalom my son, my son Charge, Chester, charge On, 
Stanley, on Toho yoho through lanes, groves, and villages. Gentlemen, 



148 PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 

what does this mean ? " Chops and tomato sauce. Tours, Pickwick." Chops 
Gracious heavens And tomato sauce Is the happiness of a sensitive and con- 
fiding female to be trifled away by such shallow artifices as these ? Sweet 
child lovely child thy parents are no more 

The knell, the shroud, the coffin, and the grave, 
The deep damp vault, the darkness, and the worm 
The exclamation-point is sometimes repeated, for greater effect ; as, " Selling off below- 
cost! ! great sacrifices! ! !" The interrogation and exclamation points are sometimes used 
sneeringly to express the unbelief of the speaker ; as, " The measures which he introduced 
to Congress, and which ought to have been carried by overwhelming majorities (?), proved 
him to have been in every Bense a great statesman (!)." 

Dash.— Rule I.— Exercises. 

Gil Bias. Your Grace's sermons never fail to be admired ; but — 
Arclibishop. It lacked the strength — the — Do you not agree with me, sir ? 
I take — ehl oh! — as much exercise — eh! — as I can, Madam Goutl 

Oh ! when the growling winds contend, and all 

The sounding forest fluctuates in the storm, 

To sink in warm repose, and hear the din 

Howl o'er the steady battlements 

* She was 

"A great fool," said a trooper. 
It was to inquire by what title General but catching himself Mr. "Washing- 
ton chose to be addressed. 

Rule II.— Exercises. 

But you are hungry — want a breakfast — turn into a restaurant — call for ham, 
eggs, and coffee — then your bill — six dollars ! — Travels in California. 

* Another wave lifts the schooner another fearful crash she rolls over her 
decks are rent asunder her crew are struggling in the water all is over 1 

Rule III.— Exercises. 

These are — ah, no! — these ivere the gazetteers! Approaching the head of 
the bed, where my poor young companion, with throat uncovered, was lying, 
with one hand the monster grasped his knife, and with the other — ah, cousin ! 
—•with the other — he seized a ham, which hung from the ceiling. 

" I am told he is a man of excellent understanding." — " Is he ?" — " Very vir- 
tuous and generous." — "I believe I shall like him." — " And very handsome." — 
"My dear papa, say no more; he's mine — I'll have him." 

* "Whatever is, is right. This world, 'tis true, 
Was made for Ceesar but for Titus too. 

In combustibility it agrees with cannel coal It does Have you examined 
its fracture I have 

Rule IV.— Exercises. 

Their female companion — faded, though still 3'oung — possessed nevertheless 
a face whose expression often drew my gaze. If I should buy the farm. — 
though, I must say, it is very uncertain as yet, — I would build a new house 
upon it. 

* Setting aside a rare virtue in this clime her aristocratic pretensipns, she 
set up as a baker for the public. All seemed very well ; but for there was 
one of those dreadful buls in the case but ho had a very small amount of 
money to begin with. 

When the parts separated by a parenthesis would require separation by a 
point even if the parenthesis were omitted, the point is placed before each dash ; 
but many writers use, for the sake of simplicity, only the dash. 



PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 149 

Rule V.— Exercises. 

No, sir ; I always thought Robertson would be crashed by his own weight — 
would be buried under his own ornaments. I gave him all I had, — my bless- 
ing. (See last sentence under semicolon, p. 145.) 

* On this was he willing to stake all he had character and life. "Which 
is more five square feet, or five feet square ? The crisp snow and the woolly 
clouds, the delightful rustle of the summer forest and the waving of the autumn 
corn, the glory of the sunset and the wonder of the rainbow the world would 
have wanted these, had not the winds been taught to do their Master's bidding. 

Bule VI.— Exercises. 

Honor and Monet. — A French officer said to a Swiss officer, " "Why is it 
that you Swiss are always hiring yourselves out to fight ?" " And what do you 
fight for f" replied the Swiss. "For honor, of course," said the other. "Then," 
resumed the Swiss, "I suppose each of us fights for what he stands most in 
need o£" — Percy's Anecdotes. 



Finally, the dash is sometimes added to the common points to lengthen the 
pause a little, show emphasis, or mark transition ; it is generally used in com- 
posite headings; (see newspapers;) it is often used where a line is broken off, 
and the subject is resumed in the next line; (see p. 106 ;) it is used to show 
omission of letters or figures ; (as, pp. 71 — 3 = pp. 71, 72, and 73 ;) and it is 
often used at the left of newspaper extracts, to show they are such, or as a 
more modest request to notice than the Uf°. 

Curves.— Exercises. 

The next day the landlord inquires (and all landlords are inquisitive), and 
after inquiry talks (and all landlords are talkative), concerning the private busi- 
ness of his new guest. Gladiator (Lat. gladius, a sword) ; a sword-player, a 
prize-fighter. I gave (and who would not have given ?) my last dollar to the 
poor beggar. 

*• The Hon. Mr. Spendthrift to borrow a name from John Bunyan wishes to 

represent the county of . 

Thou idol of thy parents — Hang the boy ! 

There goes my ink. 
With pure heart newly stamped from Nature's mint — 
Where did he learn that squint? 

The parts embosoming a parenthesis are punctuated as if they had it not ; 
but, if a point is required after the first part, it is generally placed after the en- 
tire parenthesis, or before each curve ; and when the parenthesis itself is inter- 
rogative, exclamatory, or stands detached, the proper point precedes the latter 
curve. 

Brackets.— Exercises. 

"He [Mr. Clay] never wrote such a letter." (Explanation.) "Do you know 
if [whether] he is at home?" (Correction.) " Abbotsford, May 12th," [1S20.] 
(Omission.) 

* Lesson LV. — Llewellen and his Dog. 

A true story, showing the lamentable effects of hasty -wrath. 
The spearman heard the bugle sound, and cheerily smiled the morn, 
And many a brach and many a hound attend Llewellen's horn, etc. 
Here the writer was interrupted by a visitor. 



150 PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 

Hyphen.— Exercises. 

Compounded. — One idea rather tlian two; a different meaning from that of 
the separated words : Horse-fly, orang-outang, gooseberry, to-night ; * to mor- 
row, straw berry, twenty five, touch me not (a flower). A phrase made an aa- 
jeciive : The tree-and-cloud-shadowed river ; * a life and death struggle. A 
familiar term for a particular object : Apple-orchard, boarding-house, white- 
oak ; * black berry, humming bird, rain bow. Imitative words made of 
rhyming or otherwise musical elements : Picnic, sing-song, helter-skelter ; * hodge 
podge, wishy washy. Foreign phrases not yet altogether anglicized : Piano-forte, 
camera-obscura ; * concavo convex, electro magnetism. Change in the part of 
speech : The end-all and the be-all, a setting-forth of; * a run away, many flow- 
ered. A word qualifying the word next to it, yet liable to be referred to the word 
beyond: Alight-armed soldier, battle-hymns and dirges; * the deep tangled 
wild wood, some four footed animals, Xew York Directory. 

Uncompounded. — A mere or temporary adjective, or noun so used — espe- 
cially when equivalent to the adjunct beginning with of ; A gold ring = a ring of 
gold, Malaga wine ; * common-sense, a brick-wall. Capitalized phrases made 
proper names : Long Island, Hudson's Bay, St. John's College ; * New-York, 
Prince-Edward's-Island. Idiomatic phrases, and phrases whose meaning is kept 
clear by their syntax : By and by, a carefully selected assortment ; * tit-fbr-tat, ill 
requited love, love ill-requited. An element making compounds with two or mo-e 
others before it, to show its common reference — or else it must be compounded with 
each: Riding and dancing schools, or, riding-schools and dancing-schools; his son 
and daughter in law, or, his son-in-law and daughter-in-law; the clock and watch 
repairing business; * Seed and Feed-Store; with fresh water and land-shells. 

Hyphened. — Prefixes before capital letters: Anti- American, Neo-Platonic ; 

• pre Adamite. Prefixes not uniting fluently in sound with what they are joined 
to, or liable to have their meaning lost : Vice-president, semi-cylindrical, re-collect 
(to collect again) ; * counterrevolution, reformation (a new formation), cooperato 
(or else, cooperate). Elements coming in contact with letters liable to be confound- 
ed : Ant-hill, one-eyed, chain-shot ; * pineapple, suowshoe. 

Consolidated. — Generally, prefixes with what they are joined to : Recon- 
struct, undergraduate , * pre-possession, under-rate. Most compound words used 
as adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions: Everywhere, upon, notwithstanding; 

* any- where, here-by. Frequently, compounds when again compounded: Quar- 
ter-master, quartermaster-general. Elements yielding their accents to a new and 
chief accent: Black'berry, from black and ber'ry; * book-seller, run-away. 
Compounds newly formed or but little used, generally require the hyphen; but by 
long and general use they tend to drop it : " Steamboats and railroads have driven 
all the romance out of travel." — Irving. 

A crow is a blade bird, but not a blackbird. A dog's-ear is the corner of a 
leaf turned over ; but a dog's ear is the ear of a dog. A sugar tree is made of 
sugar; but a sugar-tree is a maple that yields sugar. A glass house is made of 
glass ; but a glass-house is a house in which glass is manufactured. Many 
colored birds are not necessarily many-colored birds ; nor is a negro m erchant 
necessarily a neg ro- me reliant ; nor a live oak, alive-oak. A dancing master is 
simply a master that dances ; but a dancing-master teaches dancing. 

Quotation-marks.— Exercises. 

He is, indeed, "a bright particular star,''' and will some day make his mark 
in the world. Some of us have killed " brown-backs" and " yellow-legs" 
[birds ; as much as to say — So the people call them] in the marshes. 

* I rise for information, said a member of Congress. I am very glad to hear 
it, cried another, sitting by ; for no one needs it more. 



PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 151 

Underscore.— Exercises. 

"We must fight ; I repeat it, sir, we must fight We have petitioned, we 
have supplicated, we have remonstrated, we have PROSTRATED ourselves afc 
the foot of the throne. 

The names of boats, ships, newspapers, magazines, and other periodical lit- 
erature, are generally printed in Italics ; also words used as the names of them- 
selves, and foreign words introduced into English. 

The White Cloud arrived yesterday. The poem first appeared in the Louisville 
Journal. Woven is the perfect participle of weave. They remained in statu quo. 

* Here I reign king, and, to enrage thee more, thy king and lord. He was 
appointed secretary, pro tern. The Neptune and the Great Eastern sailed 
yesterday. A story in the New-York Ledger. 

Apostrophe.— Exercises. 

The apostrophe shows possession or omission, and sometimes assists in ex- 
pressing the plural number. 

Possession. — John's book; Mary's bonnet; boys' sports; King James's 
Bible ; the men's knapsacks ; the Duke of "Wellington's achievements. 

* Josephs pony; my brothers estate • the girls lessons; "Watts works. 

Contractions. — Th' or t' for the; 'm for am; 'rt, art; 're, are; they're, 
they are; % % is, us, has; let's, let us ; 'd, had or would; '11, will; he'll, he will; 
* 111, I will ; * Id, I would; n't, not; don't, do not ; * wont, will not; * cant, 
can not; 'tis or it's, itis ; e'en, ev'n, even; e'er, ever ; * neer, never ; o'er, over; 
'gan, began ; * gainst, against ; * neath, beneath ; o'clock, of the clock. 

* The rank is but the guineas stamp, the mans the gold for a that. 

Plurals. — " Cross your fs and dot your tfs," is not the same as " Cross your 
ts and dot your is." 

* There are no is in English " eyes ;" but es there are in "ease. 1 '' 
A does want ye to make it "aye;" theres but onejp in "peas." 



The double dash ( ), or stars ( * * * ), or periods (....), are often 

used to show the intentional omission of something. 

The caret ( A ), used only in writing, shows where to insert letters or words 
that have been accidentally omitted. 

The macron ( ~ ) marks a long sound, as in live. 

The breve ( w ) marks a short sound, as in live. 

The acute accent ( ' ) shows stress of voice, as in op-po'-nent 

The di-er'-e-sis (") shows that the vowel under it, is not connected with the 
vowel before it .; as in preeminent 

The brace ( t) unites parts, or refers them in common to something else. 

The section ( § ) and the paragraph ( ^[ ) mark the divisions of a book, or 
show where something new begins. 

The hand ( E^jp ) directs special attention to something. 

The star ( * ), the dagger ( f ), the double dagger ( \ ), and the parallels ( \ ), 
refer to notes in the margin. Letters or figures are often used for the same 
purpose. 

JSP" The Compvefiensive Grammar contains a great variety of examples to illustrate 
the rules of Punctuation and of Capital Letters. It will be well for the teacher to select 
the most instructive illustrations given in that book, and use them as a sort of M Dictation 
Exercises." 



152 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

MATTEKS OF REFEKENCE. 
Words belonging to Two or More Parts of Speech. 

All is used — 

As an adjective. " All flowers must fade." 

As a noun. " Not all that glitters, is gold." 

As an adverb. " All [altogether] listless roamed a shepherd swain." 
As is used — [" As cold as ice" — degree. 

As an adverb. " Skate as I skate"— manner. " It fell as I entered" — time 

As a conjunction. " As [since] we all must die, why not be charitable ?" 

As a pronoun. "Let such as hear, take heed." 
Before is used — 

As an adverb. " I came before it rained." 

As a preposition. " He stood before me." 
So are also used above, after, below, ere, etc. 
Both is used 

As an adjective. M Both trees are in blossom." 

As a corresponding conjunction. " She is both handsome and intelligent" 
So are also used either, neither, etc. 
But is used — 

As a conjunction. " Sin may gratify, but repentance stings." 

As & preposition. " Whence all but [except] him had fled." 

As an adverb. " "Words are but [only] leaves. 
For is used — 

As a preposition. " He works for me." 

As a conjunction. " Improve each day, for [because] life is short." 
So is also used notwithstanding. 
Much is used — 

As an adjective. " Much money is often an evil." 

As an adverb. " He is much better than he was." 

As a noun. " Where much is given, much will be required. 
So are also used more, little, less, etc. 
Since is used — 

As a preposition. " Since last year." 

As an adverb. "It happened long since." 

As a conjunction. " Since no one claims it, I will keep it." (Cause.) 
That is used — 

As an adjective. " Tiiat book belongs to me." [years." 

As a conjunction. " Few people know that some crows live a hundred 

As a relative pronoun. "The same flag that [which] we saw before." 

As a demonstrative pronoun. " The court of England or that [the court] of 
What is used — [France." 

As an interrogative pronoun. " What ails you ?" 

As a relative pronoun with one case. " I know what ails you." 

As a relative pronoun with two cases. " Take what I offer." 

As an adjective. " What news from Genoa 7" 

As an interjection. " What ! take my money, and my life too ?" 



MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 153 

Rules for Spelling. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their right letters, 
properly arranged. This art must be learned chiefly from spelling- 
books, dictionaries, and observation in reading. 

Rule I.— Doubling. 
"Words of one syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by 
a single vowel; and words of more syllables, ending in the same way, 
with the accent fixed on the last syllable, — double the consonant 
before a vowel in the derivative word. 

Ex. — Sad, sadder, saddest ; rebel', rebelled, rebellion ; rob, robber ; win, winning ; 
fop, foppish; drum, drummer ; up, upper ; admit, admittance ; quiz, quizzed. 

In other cases, no doubling takes place. 

Ex. — Seal, sealed; gild, gilded ; hard, harder ; infer', (inferred,) infer ence ; bigot, 
bigoted ; tax, taxed. X final=two consonants, ks or gz ; therefore never doubled. 

There is a difference between robed and robbed, planing and planning, hater and hatter. 

Good writers sometimes double I, contrary to the Eule above. 

Ex. — "Traveller" — Prescott, Bryant ; "marvellous," "carolled" — Irving. 

Rule II.-Final Y. 

Y final, preceded by a consonant and followed by any letter except 
*', is changed into i in the derivative word. 

Ex. — Fly, flies ; glory, glories, glorify, glorified, glorifying, glorification ; try, 
trial ; pretty, prettier, prettiest ; merry, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitialle; ivy, ivied. 
Ex ceptions: The derivatives of sly, dry, and shy ; as slyly, dryly, shyness. 

Y final, preceded by a vowel, or followed by % % remains unchanged 
in the derivative word. 

Ex. — Chimney, chimneys ; gay, gayer, gayest, gayety ; cry, cried, crying, crier ; 
buoy, buoyant; destroy, destroyer; annoy, annoyance ; joy, joyful. 

Ex ceptions : Pay, paid ,' said, laid, daily ; staid (remained) , stayed (cheeked.) 

Rule III— Final E. 

E final, when silent, is rejected before a vowel in the derivative 
word. But it is retained when needed to keep c or g soft, or to 
preserve the identity of the word. 

Ex. — Bite, biting ; force, forced, forcible ; sale, salable ; rogue, roguish. 

Agree, agreeable; peace, peaceable ; tinge, tingeing ; glue, gluey. 

There is a difference between dying and dyeing, singing and singeing. 

"Words ending with ie change * into y, before i, to prevent the doubling of 
i; as, Die, dying; vie, vying; tie, tying ; he, lying. 

E final is retained before a consonant in the derivative word. 
Sometimes it is rejected, when not needed. 

Ex. — Base, baseless ; rue, rueful; definite, definitely; eye, eyelet; whole, whole- 
some, (but wholly.) Due, duly ; true, truly ; awe, awful ; judge, j udgment. 

Monosyllables that end with f I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, generally 
have this consonant double, as cliff, mill, pass ; words that end with any other 
consonant in the same way, generally have it single, as man, cat, map. The final 
consonant of a primitive word may generally remain double, but not be trebled, 
in the derivative word, as in blissful, skillful, ful ly. One I is often dropped from 



154 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

U especially when the accent is on some other syllable ; as in shalt, always, wel- 
come ■ fulfill', use'ful. Derived verbs generally prefer the ending ize to ise, as 
legal legalize. Ei after c, as in ceiling, deceive ; generally le alter any other let- 
ter as in siege, lien, sieve. Seize, inveigle, and some other words, are exceptions. 
Compound words generally retain the spelling of the words from which they 
are formed ; as, Housewife, juryman, illness, whei-ein. Where, wherever ; whose, 
whosever; sheep, shepherd; feet, fetlock; pass, pastime; well, welfare; holy, 
holiday, — are some of the exceptions. 

Formation of Words.* 

Frequently, words are formed from other words. 

Words formed from others, are either derivative or compound ; 
and hence all words may be divided into primitive (or radical), 
derivative, and compound. 

The elements of words, in regard to meaning, are roots, pre- 
fixes, and suffixes. 

A root is the chief simplest part of a word, or that part which 
receives the prefix or suffix. 

A prefix is a letter or letters joined to the beginning of a 
word, to modify its meaning. 

A suffix is a letter or letters joined to the end of a word, to 
modify its meaning. 

Derivative words are formed from primitives, by means of 
prefixes or suffixes ; and compound words are formed by uniting 
primitives or derivatives. 

Ex. — Plant, re-plant, transplant, ira-plant. Act, act-or, act-u^, act-ivity ; 
great, great-est ; form, re-iorm-ation. Blacksmith, blameworthy, spelling-book. 

Moots are either native or foreign, and sometimes much dis- 
guised. 

Frequently, the same root may be combined with several dif- 
ferent prefixes or suffixes, or have more than one at the same 
time, or be combined with some other root. 

Ex. — Struct (build), instruct, construct, re-construct ; thermos (heat), metron 
(measure), thermometer. 

Prefixes usually modify the sense, without changing the part 
of speech. 

Suffixes usually modify the part of speech, without materially 
affecting the sense in other respects. 

Ex. — Be (from, separation), destroy, destroy-er, destrnct-ive, de-strnct-i ve-ly, 
de-struct-ive-ness, de-struct-ion, in^de-struct-ible, in-de-str\\ct-ibil-ity. 

There are different prefixes capable of expressing the same 
sense, and there are also different suffixes capable of expressing 

* This section is one of the richest in the book ; at least, great care has b^en taken to 
make it such. It will require some skill to teach it as it Fjiaiild be taught ; but if it is rightly 
taught, it will be found very entertaining and instructive to pupils, and will enable them to 
dispense with the special book which is usually devoted to this subject. 



MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 155 

the same sense; because the choice is to be determined not 
merely by the meaning of what is added, but also by euphony, 
analogy, and the character of the root. 

Ex. — Generous, un-generous ; accurate, ira-accurate ; throne, Je-throne, iin- 
throne ; confess, confess-ion. ; acknowledge, acknowledg-me/2i. 

The meaning of a prefix is sometimes very obvious, sometimes 
obscure, and sometimes it has faded altogether. 

Ex. — Trans- plant, m-correct; trans-act, under-stimdi ; com-plete, Se-take. 

Sometimes a prefix or a suffix is added to a word, simply to lengthen or to 
strengthen it a little ; as be-loved for loved, and dear-y for dear. Such a prefix may 
be disposed of, by saying that it is simply prosthet'ic ; and such a suffix, by saying 
that it is simply paragog'ic. 

In making a combined form, some of the parts frequently 
undergo a change for the sake of euphony or analogy. This con- 
sists in the change, omission, or insertion of some letter or let- 
ters. The initial consonant of the root often requires the final 
letter of the prefix to be like it. 

Ex. — Con-lect, coTAect ; dis-fer, dif-fer; in-moderate, im-moderate; con-operate, 
co-operate ; dis-vulge, di-vulge ; a-archy, an-archy ; mucilage-ous, mucUag-inous. 

Prefixes. 

The prefixes in Roman letters are Latin ; in Italic, Greek ; in black, Saxon or native. 

A ; on, in, at, to. In a few words it is merely intensive. 
Form, spell, and define : — 
Bed, ground, shore, cross, sleep, pace, slant, field, side : wake, rise. 

Thus: Abed; a — b-e-d — abed; on or in bed. — See dictionary, when you can not deter- 
mine the meaning otherwise. 
A, ab, abs; from, separation. 

Yert (turn) ; solve (loosen), rupt (broken) ; tract (draw), tain (hold). 

AD, A, AC, AF, AG, AL, AN, AP, AR, AS, AT ; to, at. 

Join, judge ; mount, scend (climb) ; cord, cuse (cause, charge) ; fix, 

fusion (pouring) ; gress (step), gravate (heavy) ; lot, luvial (washing) ; 

nex (join), nihilate (nothing); portion, predate (price); rogate (lay 

claim) ; sure, sail (leap) ; sist (stand) ; tract, tribute (give). 

A, AN; without, privation. [ernment). 

Theist (Grod), pathy (feeling), torn (cut) ; onymous (name), archy (gov- 
AMPHI ; two, double. Theatre, bious (living). 

ANA ; up, throughout, parallel, bach, again. [tist. 

Tomy (cutting), lysis (separation), logy (discourse), gram (letter), bap- 
Ante ; fore, before. Chamber, date, meridian (noon), cedent (going). 
ANTI, ANT ; against, opposition. 

Bilious, febrile, pathy (feeling), dote (given) ; arctic, agonist (contend). 
APO, AP; from, off. [(sun). 

Gee (earth), strophe (turning), logy, stle (from stello, send) ; lielion 
Be ; action directed to an object ; intensity ; by, near, about. 

Daub, dew, moan, lie, set, siege, cloud, spatter; side, fore, cause. 
Bene ; good, well. Fit (deed), volent (wishing), factor (doer), diction (say- 
Bis, bi ; twice, two. D n g)» 

Cuit (baked) ; angular, valve, gamy (marriage), sect (cut), ped (foot). 



156 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

CATA, CAT; down, against, throughout. (The opposite of ana.) 

Ract (flowing), strophe, pult (throw) ; hedral (seat), holic (whole). 
Circum, circu; round, about. 

Navigate, jacent (lying), spect (looking), stance (standing), scribe, 
(mark, write), lerence (bearing) ; late (borne), itous (going). 
Cis ; on this side. Alpine, Atlantic. 

Con, co, cog, col, com, cor ; with, together, jointly. 

Join, tract, fuse (pour), vene (come), ceive (take), tain, flict (strike), 
flagration (burning) ; extent, heir, operate ; nate (born) ; league, lect 
(gather), loquy (speaking) ; press, mingle, pose, (place) ; respond, rel- 
ative. 
Contra, contro, counter ; against, in opposition, answering to. 

Diet (say), distinguish; vert; part, pressure, feit (make), act, plot. 
De ; from, down, destruction. 

Tract, press, ject (throw), throne, scend, pend (hang), tect (cover), tach 
(tie), sist, cline (lean), spise (look), moralize. 
DIA, DI ; through, across. Meter, lect or logue (speech), gonal (angle). 
Dis, di, dif; away, apart, undoing, negation. 

Join, organize, appear, miss (send), ease, sect, tract, cover, perse (scat- 
ter), please, inter, arm, order, similar; verge (incline), stance, gress; 
fer (bear), fuse. 
E, ex, ec, ef ; out, out of, from. 

Ject (throw), lect (pick), vade (go), mit (send); pectorant (breast), press, 
pand (spread), port (carry), pose, ceed (go), elude (shut), tort (twist), 
pire (breathe) ; centric (centre), stasy (standing) ; fuse, feet (done), ful- 
gence (shining). 
EN (Greek or French), EM; in, into, upon. 

Tangle, shrine, rage, gulf, large, grave (scrape), tomb; broider, blazon, 
bark, bitter, brace (arm). 
EPI, EP ; upon, over, after. 

Taph (tomb), demic (people), thet (placed), logue ; hemeral (day), ode. 
Extra ; beyond. Ordinary, vagant (going), mural (wall). 

For, fore ; from, against, the contrary. Bid, get, sake (seek), give, 

swear; go. 
Fore, for; before. 

Tell, run, see, know, taste, man, father, noon, arm, mast, head; ward. 
HYPER ; beyond, over, excess. Borean (north), critical, meter (measure). 
HYPO ; under. Thesis placing), sulphuric, crite (thoughts). 

In, ig, im, il, ir ; not, privation, the contrary. 

Human, discreet, elastic, consistent ; noble ; modest, mortal, patient j 
legal, liberal ; reverent, regular, resolute. 
In, im, il, ir ; in, into, upon, over. 

Flame, struct, lay, here (stick), cline, vade, sist, fleet (bend), cision (cut- 
ting), scribe, wrought; plant, pearl, print, press, port, pend, pose; 
luminate or lustrate (throw light) ; radiate (throw ray-). 
Inter ; between. "Weave, line, cede, regnum (reign), mix, marriage. 

Intro ; inwards, within. Duce (lead), mission (sending). 

META, METH; over, beyond, with, change. 

Thesis, morphose (form), physics, phor (convey) ; od (way). 
Ulis; wrong, ill. Apply, call, deed, place, use, spell, take, fortune. 

Non; negation. Conductor, conformity, sense, resident, payment. 



MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 157 

Ob, oc, of, op ; in the way, to, against. 

Trade (thrust), ject (throw), stacle (standing) ; cur, casion (falling) ; fer, 
pose, press. 
Out ; beyond, not within. 

Bid, grow, last, live, let, side, law, cast. 
Over ; above, beyond, excess. 

Balance, hang, top, leap, spread, do, flow, look, load, shoot, value, wise. 
PARA, PAR; beside, against, from. 

Dox (opinion), graph (writing), phrase, site (food) ; helion, ody (song). 
Per, pel ; through, by. 

Use, form, ennial (year), ceive, sist (stand), feet, forate (bore), chance, 
cent (hundred) ; lucid (shining). 
Peri ; around, about, near. 

Patetic (walking), helion, od, phery (bearing), cranium, style (pillar). 
Post; after. Script (writing), humous (ground), pone (place), mortem 
Pre ; before. [(death), meridian. 

Judge, mature, engage, dispose, sentiment, fer, sume (take), vent (come), 
scribe, side (sit), text (weaving), cision. 
Preter ; past, beyond. Natural, imperfect, mission. 

Pro, prof; for, forth, forwards, before. 

Noun, ceed (go), gress, tect, pel (drive), spect (look), duce (lead, bring), 
ject, fusion, logue; fer. 
Re ; again, bach 

Build, call, enter, new, view, pel, lapse (fall), sonant (sounding), strain 
(draw), bound, place, sist, cline, tain. 
Retro; backwards. Ced^vert, spect, grade (walk). 

Se ; aside, apart. Cede, elude (shut), cant (cutting), duce (lead), lect. 
Semi, demi, hemi ; half. 

Annual, circle, colon, diameter, vowel ; god, cannon ; sphere. 
Sine ; without. Cure (care). 

Sub, sue, sue, sug, sup, sur, sus, — subter; under, after, inferior. 

Soil, divide, scribe, ject, marine; cor (run), cumb (lie down), ceed; fer, 
fuse, fix ; gest (bring) ; plant, press ; rogate (ask) ; tain ; fuge (fly). 
Super, supra, sur ; above, over and above. 

Structure, fine, cargo, fluous, natural ; mundane ; pass, charge, mount. 
SYN, SYL, SYM, SY; with, together. 

Thesis, tax (placing), opsis (view), agogue (lead); lable (taking), logism 
(counting) ; phony (sound), pathy ; stem (to make stand, set). 
Trans, tran, traj through, across, over, on the other side of. 

Act, plant, gress, Atlantic, pose, port, fer or late (carry), migrate, form, 
it (going) ; scribe (write), scend ; dition (giving). 
Tri ; three. Colored, angular, meter, foliate (leaf), enniaL 

Un ; not, negation, privation, undoing. 

Able, happy, wise, truth, aided, bar, chain, ship, do, twist, horse. 
Under ; beneath, inferior. 

Agent, brush, current, ground, rate, sell, hand, go, mine, sign. 
Uni ; one. Corn (horn), form, florous (flowering), valve (shell). 
Up ; motion upwards, above, subversion. 

Turn, raise, rise, hold, land, hill, right, start, set, root. 
With ; against, from, back. Hold, draw, stand. 



158 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

Suffixes, or Affixes. 

The derivatives of this class consist almost entirely of ?ioims, 
adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 

The same suffix is not usually confined to one meaning, but ranges with the 
principles given under the head of Figures. (See p. 138.) The following are 
the chief suffixes, with their ordinary meanings: — 
Able ; can be. Conquer-a&te ; can be conquered. 

can or should be. Fitl-able ; can or should be pitied. 

having, giving. Comfort-a&te / having or giving comfort. 
Ac ; belonging to, like. Elegi-ac ; belonging to or like elegy. 
Aceous ; having the qualities of consisting of, resembling. w Kerb-aceotis plants." 

" Crust-aceous animals ;" like crabs or lobsters. 

Ade ; thing. Lemon-aae ; drink made of lemons. [ade. 

group of things or acts. Arc-ade, continuation of arches. Cannon- 
Age ; state. Bond-aae ; state of being in bonds, slavery. 

act or thing. Carri-aae ; act of carrying, or that which carries. 
allowance. Mile-aae ; what is paid per mile. 
collection. Cord-age ; collection of cords, a ship's tackle. 
Al ; having, consisting of. Crim-in-aZ; having crime. Ornament-aZ. 

belonging to, suitable to. Parent-aZ; belonging or suitable to a parent. 
act. Remov-aZ; act of removing. 
An ; belonging to, resembling. Hercu'le-an ; large or strong as Hercules. 

person. African ; a person from Africa. Guard-i-an. 
Ance, ancy; act or thing. Resist-ance ; act of resisting, thing resisting. 

state. Constancy; state of being constant. See Ct. 
Ant; doing. Pleas-antf; applied to something that pleases. 

person. Serv-ant; one that serves. 
Ar; belonging to. Po-lar; belonging to the poles. 

like, consisting of. Glob-u-lar; like a globe. Titular. 
person. Beg-gar; one that begs. 
Ard; person. Drunk-arc?; one that is habitually drunk. 

resembling. Hag-garcZ; resembling a hag in appearance, withered. 
Ary; belonging to, consisting of. Custom- ary ; belonging to custom. 
person. Ad'vers-an/; one that is adverse or hostile. 
thing on place. Infirm'-an/; a house or place for the infirm. 
Ate ; to make, to do. Perpetu-ate ; to make perpetual. Officiate. 
belonging to. Collegi-ate ; belonging to a college. 
office, government. Caliph-ate ; office or dominion of a caliph. 
Atic, etic. See Ic. Emblem-aZte. Sympathetic. 
Cy ; act. Pira-cy; act or crime of pirating. 

state. Secre-cy ; the state of being secret. 
office, district. Cura-cy ; the office or district of a curate. 
Dom ; state or thing. ¥ree-dom ; state of being free. "Wis-oora. 

country or district, government. King-dom ; country ruled by a king. 
Ee ; person, person to whom. Absent-ee ; one that is absent. Trustee. 
Ed ; did or received. Past tense or perfect participle. See p. 47. 

furnished with, having. Hilt-ed; furnished with a hilt. Beard-eo\ 
En; to make. Black-en; to make black. 

made of, resembling. Gold-en; made of gold, resembling gold, 

precious as gold. [Dependent 

Ence, eiicy, ent. See Ance, Ancy, Ant. Reverence. Solvency. 



MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 159 

Er, eer, ier, or $ person. Driver; one that drives. Engineer. Financier. 
thing. Eevolv-er ; something that revolves, a pistol. 
Er, more; Est, most. Comparison of adjectives or adverbs. See pp. 25, 60. 
Escenl; growing, becoming. Putrescent; becoming putrid. 
Ess ; female. Host-ess; a female host. 

Ferons ; bearing, producing. Comf-erous ; producing cones, like the pine. 
Eail ; full of, having of Gaxe-ful; full of care, cautious. 
Fy; to make. Purify; to make pure. 
Mood ; state or thing. False-hood ; state of being false, what is false. 

state or qualities. Man-hood ; state of being a man, noble qual- 

group. Sister-hood; a group of sisters. [ities. 

Ible. See Able. Corrupt-i&Ze. Contempt-i&Ze. Sens-iZ>Ze. 

Ic, teal $ consisting of, resembling. Metal' -he; consisting of metal. 

Spher-icaL [a hero. 

belonging to, suitable to. Hero-ic; belonging to or becoming 

having, inclined to. Dropsical ; having dropsy. WhimsicaZ. 

Ice ; act, state, or thing. Service ; act of serving, state of serving, thing 

Ecs ; science or art. Mechanics ; the science of machinery. [done. 

things collectively. Statist-ics ; facts showing the condition of a nation. 

51c ; belonging to, resembling. Serv-iZe; belonging to or like a servant, 

lite; belonging to. Alpine; belonging to the Alps. [mean. 

consisting of, resembling. Alkalme; consisting of or like alkali. 

Ing ; doing. Ending of the present participle. See p. 57. 

act or thing. Shav-m^r ; act of shaving, what is shaved off. 
group, material in mass. Bed-ding ; materials of a bed. 
occupation, science, or art. - Hunt-ing. Fngineer-ing. Fa.rm.-ing. 
losi; act or result. Union; act of uniting, things united. 

act or state. Communion; act or state of communing. 
The endings tion and sion, which occur so often, belong to this head. 
5sh ; somewhat. Green-ish ; somewhat green. 
like. Boy-ish; like a boy. 

inclined to. Thie v-is/r; inclined to thieve or steal. Snapp ish. 
to make, to do. 'Publish ; to make public. Yanish (vain), pass away. 
Ism ; act or mode. Baptism ; act or mode of baptizing. 

doctrine or peculiarity. Jesuit-ism. American-ism. 
Idiom. Latin-ism ; a Latin mode of speech. 
1st ; person or doer. Art-ist; one that practises art. 
Ite ; person, usually of a race, clan, or party. Israel-iZe. 
Ive ; doing. Abusive; abusing. 

person or other object. Relative ; one related. Captive. 
Ize, ise ; to act the part of. Tyrannize; to act the tyrant. 

to make, to give. Legal- ize; to make legal. Author-ize. 
ILess ; without, wanting. Care-Zess; without care, heedless. 
ILiiig; an object. Year-ling; something a year old. World-ling. 

a small one. Gos-ling ; a small or young goose. So, -kin, -ock, 

-CLE, -EL, -ULE, -ET. 

Ey ; like. Mother-Zy ; like a mother, kind. 

MLent; act or result. Abridg-ment ; act of abridging, thing abridged. 

state. Content-men^; state of being contented. 

something that does. Amuse-ment; something that amuses. 
Ness ; state or quality. Happi-ness; state of being happy. Hard-ness. 



160 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

Ory ; doing. Declaratory ; declaring. 

place. Depository ; place of deposit. [joke. 

Ose ; consisting of, inclined to. Jocose; consisting of jokes, inclined to 
Ous; consisting of. having. Fibrous; consisting of fiber. Ambitious. 

doing, inclined to. Studi-ous; studying, inclined to study. Malicious. 
Ric (akin to rich, right, realm) ; district, government, dominion. Bishorw<V. 
Ship ; state or thing. Hard-sAzp; hard condition, what causes it. 
act or thing. Worship. Courtship. 

office, dignity. Clerkship , office of a clerk. ~Lora\ship>. 
Soane ; tending to, somewhat. Wearisome ; tending to weary. Glad-so??2e. 

inclined to. Quarrelsome ; inclined to quarrel. 
Ster ; person or other object. Song-ster; one that sings. See Er. 
Ude ; state or thing. Infinitude. Multitude. 
Ure ; act or state. Exposure; act of exposing, state of being exposed. 

thing or result. Enclosure. Temperature. 

science, art, or result. Architect-ure. 
Y, ry, ly ; having. Stony ; having stones. Dirty. Gloomy. 

consisting of, resembling. Wiry ; consisting of or resembling wire. 

worthy of Trusty ; worthy of being trusted. 

state or quality. Honesty ; state or quality of being honest, Saf<-/y. 

objects collectively. Soldiery ; soldiers collectively. Revel-ry. Navy 
(navis, ship). 

place. Grocery ; place in which groceries are kept and sold. 

art, science, or result. Mason-ry. 

Nouns. 

Person or Instrument : Ard, ary, ee, ess, ine, ist, ite, ive, 
ix, n, nt, r. 

Thing, Act, or State : Ade, age, al, do-m, hood, ice, ics, 
ion, ism, ment, ness, nee, ry, ship, t, th, ude, ure, y. 

Most derivative nouns are formed from verbs, adjectives, and nouns. A 
derivative noun may denote either a person, a thing, an act, or a state. 

The person denoted by a derivative noun, when it denotes a person, 
must be the doer of an act, the receiver of an act, or simply one in some 
way related to that from which the name is formed. See pp. 158-60. 

From the thing, the mind naturally passes to whatever is obviously re- 
lated to it. 

From the act, the mind readily passes to what caused it, — whether a 
person or an object, or some faculty, skill, or principles, — to the result, or 
to the manner. 

From the state, the mind readily passes to what caused it, to what fol- 
lows from it, to what sustains it, or to what necessarily accompanies it. 

Hence affixes are perplexingly variable in their meanings ; indeed, so much so, 
that the pupil will oiten find it safer to learn, from a dictionary, the meaning of the 
entire word, than to determine this meaning from his knowledge of the affix. 

Form and spell, making the requisite euphonic changes ; and define: — 

Ard. — Drunk,* dote, slug, dull, cow (verb), Spain, Savoy. 

* Throughout the following exercises, the student should spell and define, from his dic- 
tionary if -necessary, each word given ; and then the derivative word in like manner. Thus : 



MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 161 

Ary. — Adverse, statue, note, mission. 

Ee. (Generally passive ; the person to whom.) — Indorse, pay, patent, 
assign, consign, trust, commit, legate, mortgage, lease, less ; absent, refuge. 

Ess, ine, ix ; female. — Lion, heir; hero, Joseph; administrator. 

1st. — Copy, tour, journal, natural, novel, algebra, drug, duel, art, violin, 
pian-o: drama, -tist ; enthusiasm, -ast, encomium. 

Ite. — Favor, Israel, Moab, Jacob. 

five. — Capture, operate. 

N. — America, Africa, Virginia, Kentucky, college, music. 

Wt« — Claim, -ant, account, inhabit, combat, dispute, confide, protest, 
assist, assail, appeal; study, -ent, preside; oppose, -ponent; act, -gent; 
receive, -cipient. 

K.. — Oversee; lie, -ar, beg, school; farm, -er, hunt, ride, drive, make, 
teach, preach, write, speak, wait, plaster, settle, pipe, widow, hat, foreign; 
visit, -or, edit, profess, survive, speculate, create, govern, conquer, direct, 
conduct, protect, ; conspire, -ator ; compete, -itor ; auction, -eer, mountain, 
engine, gazette, pamphlet, chariot ; cash, -ier, cannon, finance, cloth, glaze ; 
save, -ior ; law, -yer, saw; team, -ster, web; poke, -er (thing), revolve, 
shut, boil, read, speak, fend, steam, knock, wrap. 

[Diminutives. (These often imply endearment or contempt.) — 
Man, -ihin ; lamb, -kin; ring, -let, stream, leaf, plant, cover; lock, -et, mall; 
duck, -ling, lord, hire, suckle. Globe, globw?e; grain, granwZe; ball, bullet; 
cat, kitten; island, isle ; isle, islet. 

A de. — Gascon, stock, lemon, baluster ; stamp, -ede. 

Age. — Use, marry, mile, post, equip, till, folium (leaf), herb, bag, 
bond, pupil, parson, hermit, anchor. 

Al. — Peruse, remove, recite, requite, deny, propose, refuse, dismiss. 

l>Ofin. — Free, wise, martyr, thrall, king, duke, earl. 

Mood. — Child, brother, man, woman, boy, sister, priest, hardy, lively. 

Ice. — Serve, just, lath, lat-tice. 

les. — Poet, harmony, mechanic, statist (state), phys (nature). 

fiooi* — Commune, precise, act, reflect, possess, expand ; and many 
other words, in which the ending shows itself in the form of Hon or sion. 

Ism. — Fanatic, despot, critic, hero, baptize, heathen. 

Ment. — Move, pave, content, case, punish, acquire, agree, battle, 
settle, complete, refresh, conceal, excite, refine, retire, manage, abridge, 
amend, nourish, arm, -ament. 

J¥ee, ncy. — Acquaint, -ance, concord, resist, observ-e, convey, ele- 
gant ; innocent, -ence, resident, differ, precede ; pliant, -ancy, constant ; 
despond, -ency, ascend. 

Ness. — Good, bad, white, bold, sweet, holy, busy, comprehensive. 

Ship. — Partner, clerk, scholar, professor, town, workman, horseman, 
apprentice, hard, friend, lord, court. See Hood. 

T, tfli. — Constrain, join, restrain ; warm, wide, true, long, strong. 

Ude. — Disquiet,, serve, solitary, right, red-. 

Ure. — Please, depart, moist, seize, legislate, s\gn-ature, nourish, nurt-. 

D-r-u-n-k-drunk, intoxicated tenth liquor; d-r-u-n-k-drunk-a-r-d-ard-drunkard, one that is 
habitually drunk, a sot. A-d-ad-v-e-r-s-e-verse-adverse, opposing, contrary ; a-d-ad-v-e-r- 
ver-adver-s-a-sa-adversa-r-y-ry-adversary, one that opposes, an enemy. So comprehensive 
is the collection of words here presented, that the defining of the words in the manner in« 
dicated, will amply repay the labor of using the dictionary. 



162 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

Y. — Honest, modest, discover, master, armor, glutton, injure; lunatic, 
-acy, private, secret, -cy ; hypocrite, -sy ; pedant, -ry, gallant, revel, bigot, 
bake, scene; brew, -ery, cook, witch, mock, fish, crock; loyal, -ty, novel; 
null, -ity, dense, fertile, hostile, captive, divine, pure, infirm, opportune, 
secure, sincere, elastic. 

Words ending in y or ry, are often collective in sense, denoting groups of ob- 
jects or acts ; as, Orange-ry, skrub-bery, soldier-y, 6orcer-y, trigonometry. So is 
the ending ing not unffequently collective in sense ; as, Bed, bedding ; shop, shop- 
ping ; bagging, carpeting, hedging, gunning (elements of science, or science as drawn 
from a multitude of acts or experiments). 

Adjectives. 

Al, an, ar, ate, ble, en, era, ful, ic, (ific,) ile, ine, ish, ive, 
less, nt, cms, some, ward, y, (ly, ary, ory). 

Most derivative adjectives are formed from nouns and verbs • and these 
adjectives generally signify — 

Having of or having the nature of, more or less ; or that the object 
described, in some ways belongs or is related to that from whose name 
the adjective is formed. 

The same word may frequently be used either as an adjective or as a noun. 

Form and spell, making the requisite euphonic changes ; and define: — 

Al. — Nature, nation, origin, music, autumn, tropic; senator, -ial, 
manor, matter, part, commerce ; spirit, -ual, sense, habit ; consequence, 
-tial, influence, essence; benefit, -rial; nose, nas- } pope, pap-, feast, fest-. 

Am. — Europe, epicure, Africa, America, Italy, suburbs. 

Ar. — Column, consul; globe, -ular, circle, muscle, title, particle. 

Ate. — Rose, globe, affection, consider, compassion. 

Ble. (Passive, if from a transitive verb.) — Detest, -able, cure, eat, 
change, honor, tolerate, utter, value, fashion; corrupt, -ible, resist, sense, 
destroy, destruct-, accede, access-, perceive, percept-, divide, divis-. 

En. (Of what substance made.) — Beech, wood, wool, earth, brass, 

Ern. — North, south, east, west. \braz-. 

Fill. (Opposed to Less.) — Art, mind, thought, peace, hope, brim, 
care, fret, waste, cheer, fear, youth, tune, play, sin, shame, wake, law, 
mourn, truth, mercy, duty. 

Se. — Angel, hero, poet, sphere, lyre; vertex, -ical, dropsy; sympathy, 
-etic, pathos, theory ; barometer, -etric, diameter; emblem, -atie, problem, 
system, drama; color, -ific, dolor; science, -tific ; romance, -tic; pharisee, 
-saic; tragedy, -yic; Plato, -nic. 

lie. — Infant, serve, merchant, mercant-, puer (boy). [tracted). 

Ine. — Serpent, adamant, amaranth, crystal, -line, leather, -n (con- 

Isli. — Salt, black, yellow, sweet, fop, fool, knave, scare, skit-; Spain. 

Ive. (Generally active.) — Create, abuse, attract, invent, prevent, 
progress, retain, retent-, attend; perceive, -ceptive; presume, -sumptive ; 
produce, product-, destroy; disjoin, disjunct-; adhere, -hesive, corrode, 
intrude, decide; impel, -pulsive, repel. 

Eess. — Art, blame, faith, fear, care, help, hope, name, fruit, worth, 
ground, guilt, thought, mercy. 

IVt. (Generally active.) — Tolerate, -ant, please, buoy, triumph, attend, 
expect, luxury; solve, -ent, consist, abhor; compose, -ponent. 



MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 163 

Oils. — Bulb, pore, pomp, fame, clamor, joy, grieve, ruin, peril, danger, 
murcle/, mountain, solicit, covet ; bile, -ious, perfidy, vary, malice, caprice ; 
pity, -eous, beauty, duty ; tempest, -uous, contempt, tumult ; enormity, 
-mous ; merit, -orious; mucilage, -inous; bulb, -iferous. 

Some. — Toil, tire, dark, glad, quarrel, lone, weary. See Ish. 

Y. — Grass, rock, sand, flint, hill, shade, swamp, meal, flower, curl, mud, 
cloud, wealth, grease, flesh, sponge, sleep, heart, pearl, oil, mire, wire ; 
fire, fiery ; clay, -ey ; friend, -ly, beast, brother, father, mother, heaven, 
man, time, state, home; residue, -ary, imagine, element; subsidy, -iary ; 
contradict, -ory, conciliate, declare, satisfy, explain. 

Upward, outward, armigerous, spheroid, Arabesque, statuesque, grotesque. 

Verbs. 

Ate, en, fy, ish ; ize, ise. 

Most derivative verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives; and these 
verbs generally signify — 

To make or become ; to impart the thing or quality to, or to exercise 
it ; to make the ordinary use of; an act or state consisting of some com- 
mon or permanent relation between the subject of the verb and the thing. 

Form and spell, making the requisite euphonic changes ; and define : — 

Ate. — Alien, origin, germ, populous, luxury, fabric, facility, spoil, spoli-, 
grain, granu-, stimulous, office, vacant, circular. 

En. — Black, white, sharp, red, soft, moist, less, sweet, bright, strength, 
haste, glad, sad, ripe, quick, thick, fright. 

Fy. — Beauty, pure, just, simple, glory, class, sign, clear, clari-, right, 
recti-, peace, pari-, special, sped-, example, exempli-, fruit, fructi- ; prophet, 

Isli. — Brand, bland, public, famine, languid. \r es y- 

Eze, i§e. (These generally signify to make, to apply, to act the part 
of.) — Legal, theory, modern, moral, organ, botany, tyrant, melody, fam- 
iliar, character, apology; critic. 

Sharp ending to flat or rough. — Cloth, breath, wreath, bath, price, 
advice, grass, excuse, abuse, grief, half, thief. 

Accent changed. — Abstract, conflict, absent, frequent, rebel. 

Word unchanged. (To make that use of which mankind generally 
make; some customary or habitual act or state; some active relation to.) 
— Hoe, shoe, shovel, plane, chisel, hammer, smoke, garden, farm, weed, 
plant, coop, soap, shear, gem, fire, lance, and the names of instrumental 
things generally. 

Adverbs. 

Ly, ward or wards, wise or ways. 

Most derivative adverbs are formed from adjectives. 
Form, spell, and define : — 

lLy ; like, manner, quality. — Bitter, strange, bright, plain, faint, fierce, 
swift, playful, studious, mere, scarce, in, one, on-, spiral, fearless, infallible. 

Ward, wards ; direction. — Back, in, out, up, down, home, heaven, 
east, lee, wind. 

Wise, ways ; manner, way. — Length, cross, other, side, edge ; 
straight. 



164 MATTERS OF REFERENCE. 

A compound word generally consists of a principal word and its modifier, 
abridged both into one word. (See pp. 105, 150.) The first part of a compound 
word is usually the descriptive part ; aud the most numerous compounds are those 
in which a noun is combined with a noun. 

Additional Words Explained. 

Pages 

67-87. (Correct) Syntax.-^w/e; something fit to bo obeyed, something of great 
importance because often true, or true of much: rules are great truths according to •which 
words are rightly put together to make sentences, or which we must mind in order to under- 
stand sentences or make them. Governing rcord, a word that causes the form of some other 
word; a preposition or a transitive verb. Term, from the Latin term'inus, a boundary ; 
what bounds or circumscribes a meaning ; a word or an expression. 

Apposition, from ad, changed to ap, and position; placing near or beside, for the ex- 
planatory term is placed beside the other one. Absolutely (Note 10th) without a noun or 
pronoun to which the adjective belongs. Constmction, arrangement and sense with other 
words. Absolutely or independently (Note 12th), without a noun or pronoun to which the 
participle or infinitive belongs. 

Independently (Note 13th), without modifying any word in the sentence. Same con- 
struction (Rule 15th), — two or more nouns are in the same construction, when they aro 
nominatives to the same verb, or are governed by the same word; two or more verbs are 
in the same construction, when they have the same nominative; two or more adjectives aro 
in the same construction, when they qualify the same noun or pronoun, etc. Xo granui'ati- 
cal connection, no such connection as a grammar can treat of ; independent of, free from. 

Parsing, from the Latin pars, part ; literally, parts-ing or piercing, to get at the sense : 
separating into the parts or simple ideas which make up a thing or complex idea. Form/' 
ula, something to show how a thing should be done. 

88-101. False Syntax ; the wrong words put together, or the right words improperly 
put together, to make sentences. Politeness; kindness that shows good breeding on our 
part, and a delicate regard for tho feelings or happiness of others. Ambig'itous, \n\\ ing two 
meanings. Ac' cent ; a greater stress of voice on some syllable of a word than on the re- 
maining syllables, made for the sake of distinction or for euphony and easy pronunciation. 
Voluntary, coming from a person's free will, of one's own accord. ContiJi'ffeni, happen- 
ing to. Compul'sory, compelled, forced. Anal'ogy, resemblance in the relation of things, 
—thus, scales on a fish aro analogous to shingles on a house ; some similarity belonging to a 
number of words. Consistent, not improper, making good sense with. Protnts'cuoiM, 
mixed. Connection, tie, arrangement, construction. Inel/egant ; not so polite, refined, or 
good as it should be. Appropriate, suitable, fit. 

103-29. Analysis, from the Greek ana, up, and lysis, loosening ; literally, a loosen- 
ing up. (Compare with our phrase to cut up a thing.) The analysis of sentences is a kind 
of higher parsing, being in some respects to parsing as algebra is to arithmetic. I)i--- 
in its original meaning, refers to the flow of thought; and thence it has been applied to 
whatever is said or written. Paragraph, from tho Greek para, near, beside, and graph* 
writing; written beside, what is written apart or separate. Z>eclar J aUve, saying boldly. 
Ea'dam'atory, crying out. Independent, having nothing to do with others. 'Dependent, 
relying on others. Log'ical, belonging to Logic; and grammatical, belonging to Gram- 
mar; because, formerly, the parts so named, belonged peculiarly to these sciences. 

Element, one of the simple things that makes a part of a larger. Ellip'six, the omission 
of such words as can be easily supplied by the mind. E/lij/tical, having words omitted. 
Inverted; so arranged that what ordinarily follows, precedes. Correlative, mutually de- 
pendent. Logical order and fullness ; according to Logic, in the reasoning manner, or as a 
cool and deliberate mind wouid state a thing. An idiom is a peculiar form of expression, 
through which the sense generally runs like the grain through a knot of wood. 

135-151. Punctuation, from pimctum, a point ; the art of using points. Period 
means, literally, a circuit of words ; colon, a. member; semicolon, half a member ; cemma, 
a part cut off; and thence the words were applied to the points showing these parts. Ab- 
breviation, a word shortened by omitting some of its letters. Par-eu-t/ut'-ic ; what brings 
out the full sense, but can be omitted without destroying the sense. The curves are often 
called marks of parenthesis, or jiarenthesis ; but parenthesis properly denotes what i* en- 
closed by them, by dashes so used, or by brackets. Capital, from the Latin word caput, 
head ; chief, large. 

Figure, shape, form ; a form or mode of speech. Met'aplior, transfer. Jfeton'j/my, chango 
of name. Syn-ec'-do-che, understanding one thing with another. Verse ; a turning, that 
i9, a turning back at the end of the line to make another line. Iam'bic, attacking; being 
first used in tatire. Trochee, tripping, running. Dactyl, finger ; because it has three parts, 
like a finger. An'apest; reversed, i. e., reversed dactyl. Jm-ag-in-a'-tion ; that faculty 
or power of the mind which calls up the shapes of things that are absent, or which pictures 
forth things that do not exist. 



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